Relevance, Rationale, and Contex
Traditional approaches to development favored a top–down approach. Needs and objectives for development were to be determined by the state and its key actors at the highest level. Ideas for resolving problems and achieving development were transmitted from the top to the local levels through a hierarchy of governmental machinery. Citizens remained passive observers as their fate were decided upon by the government and its bureaucrats, often with input from the international community of donors. Consequently, most developing countries (DCs) continue to struggle with the same problems that have afflicted them for centuries, and the goal of development remains unattained.
One of the reasons behind the development debacle for many countries has been the inconsistency between local needs and the nature and objectives of programs designed for this purpose. Lack of understanding of local conditions and capacity has led to the failure of development efforts and underlines the need for contribution from all stakeholders in designing programs. Among the stakeholders, citizens constitute the largest and more potential group, and their participation is critical for making development a reality.
Development, as mentioned previously, is extremely difficult to conceptualize, and the task becomes far more complex because of the various approaches in defining it. In general, development involves a series of activities that lead to stability in the political system, soundness in the economy, general consensus of values among all groups participating in the political process, responsible electorate, well-developed civil and political institutions, and effective machinery for helping with the formulation and implementation of policies. Although many of these objectives seem to be linked to the maturity of the political system and level of democratization, the elements of citizen participation and empowerment are intimately related to the process in achieving them.
In the context of DCs, citizen participation and empowerment are much more significant. The huge gap between the center and the periphery as well as economic classes isolates policy makers from the vast clientele the policies are intended to help. A rigid and hierarchical bureaucracy and social system precludes the participation and contribution to the development process by the majority of the population. These citizens are often not included in the network of the national economy and have minimal involvement in political decisions that are critical in determining policies and programs for development. Citizen participation is useful in serving as means of effective negotiation, building relationships, and enhancing trust among the participants.
The concept of participation became prominent in the development literature as new nations gained experience in forming governments and establishing institutions. Often, developmental activities and decisions were dominated by authoritarian civilian or military rulers who were out of touch with, and insensitive to, the needs of the vast number of citizens who resided outside the national capital. A modern nation needs participating citizens, men and women who take an active interest in public affairs and who exercise their rights and perform their duties as members of a community larger than that of the kinship network and the immediate geographical community.
There are several meanings and interpretations of participation, and a number of distinct views were identified by the Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO). It may mean:
- sensitizing people to make them more responsive to development programs and to encourage local initiatives and self-help;
- involving people as much as possible actively in the decision-making process which regards their development;
- organizing group action to give to hitherto excluded disadvantaged people control over resources, access to services and/or bargaining power;
- promoting the involvement of people in the planning and implementation of development efforts as well as in the sharing of their benefits; and
- in more general, descriptive terms, "the involvement of a significant number of persons in situations or actions which enhance their well-being, e.g. their income, security or self-esteem.
Forms, Strategies, and Outcomes
Participation takes various forms, and they vary according to the nature of the social and political system that exists in a country. The methods of political participation included voter education, enhancing the awareness of rights and responsibilities of citizens, lobbying and advocacy, often aimed towards developing a more informed citizenry who could hold elected representatives more accountable. In terms of social and community participation, it is noted that the development of a number of broader participatory methods for appraisal, planning, monitoring large institutions, training and awareness building.
Citizens can participate as advisors on boards or committees, policy makers on neighborhood councils that influence municipal policy, and residents in local community organizations that develop plans and activities through joining social movements. At various levels, citizens participate through voting for their preferred political parties, candidates, and programs or by marching in peaceful demonstrations to register their dissatisfaction. Uphoff (1979) introduced the concept of development participation and emphasized the empowerment of people from the disadvantaged groups and strengthening their organizations at the grassroots level. His approach was to focus on economically productive activities that could benefit the poor sections in the remote and rural areas, determination of targets jointly by the poor in collaboration with public officials, making all concerned parties aware of their roles, and local solution of problems.
Another form of participation could be representation in the governing boards and councils of public bodies. Citizens can be elected or appointed to public institutions and contribute to better performance of these bodies by representing the views and interests of the community. The existing theories of representation—trustee, delegate, status, and symbolic—reflect different kinds of roles for citizens who have the opportunity of serving on public bodies. But the issue of participation for assisting with development extends far beyond co- or electing members of public bodies. It entails a wide range of activities and requires meaningful inputs in the process of setting agenda, shaping policies, and implementing them and involves a continuing role for the citizens in monitoring the progress of steps taken to achieve the ultimate aim of development.
Various mechanisms may be employed to stimulate citizen participation in public affairs. Various scholars noted the involvement of marginalized sectors in the different structures in India and the Philippines and the use of information and communication technology to make demands by demonstrating what government is doing—for instance, the setting up of e-participation projects in Taiwan, China, and Indonesia. Similar to the debates on development, the concept of participation can be considered both as a goal and a means to an end. The target group for participation depends on the social and political circumstances as well as the goals of development. At the broadest level, participation in the electoral process is increasingly becoming popular as more and more states adopt a system of universal franchise. Some restrictions apply in cases where representation in the legislature is limited by constitutional requirement. Interestingly, participation through electoral means is hardly effective as the system of first-past-the-post adopted by most countries reflects a choice of the majority, however slim it may be.
Yet another approach to citizen participation can be considered in terms of involvement in the local and national institutions of a country. For example, there should be scope for participation in the national and regional legislatures, public service, and other bodies and agencies that are able to influence policy decisions. In plural societies, this may be achieved through the reservation of places according to the number of identifiable groups. An alternative approach is to provide full and effective access for all citizens to facilities for education and empowerment so as to allow them to compete with potential groups for inclusion in the national institutions. It should also be recognized that effective development management entails not only the inclusion of the poor and disadvantaged sections but positive contributions from all other groups in society. In view of worldwide impacts of globalization and increasingly important role of the market and private sector in obtaining good governance, participation of all groups has become critical.
Several positive outcomes of citizen participation are recorded in the literature. Beresford (2002) pointed out an interesting dilemma in this respect. First, it may lead to enhanced political interest and, at the same time, reveal public dissatisfaction. Second, citizen participation is generally a priority of the governments, but it does not achieve much because of various constraints including limited allocation of resources. Therefore, the genuineness of interest and political will need to be present along with the formal statement of preference for citizen participation.
