From the big bang, the primeval
swamp to the Indus Valley Civilization. There is a tendency to sometimes
include the Indus Valley Civilization in prehistory, since technically
prehistory includes everything that happened before the Word happened.
However, technically again the Indus Valley Civilization did have a
script, although it has not been decoded yet. So, it's generally
included in
Ancient History nowadays. For India, it begins from the
Indus Valley Civilization (for which the date is a matter of hot debate,
but historians have agreed to disagree on 3000BC) to just after the
king Harsha Vardhana, which is around 700-800BC.
During or
after this period came Aryans who composed these evocative hymns to
nature and celebrated life exuberantly referred to themselves as Aryas
usually anglicized as Aryan meaning 'noble'. The 6th Century B.C. was
the period of Magadh Kingdom. Chandragupta Maurya ousted the oppressive
ruler of Magadh to find his own dynasty that existed from 322 - 298 B.C.
The most famous Maurya King Ashoka the Great ruled from 273 - 232 B.C
over a large kingdom stretching from Kashmir and Peshawar in the North
and Northwest to Mysore in the South and Orissa in the East. He after
witnessing the carnage at the battle field of Kalinga (269 B.C.) in
Orissa, dedicated himself to Dharmma ( righteousness ).
In the
subsequent centuries, after the Ashoka empire disintegrated, India
suffered a series of invasions, and often fell under the spell of
foreign rulers - Indo Bactrians, the Sakas and others. After the next
400 years of instability the Guptas established their kingdom.
Kalidas, the famous Sanskrit poet and dramatist, author of Abhijnana
Shankuntalam, Kumarsambhavam and Meghadutam is believed to have adorned
the Gupta court. Also the great mathematicians like Aryabhatta and
astronomers like Varahmihir lived during this period. The dazzling wall
paintings of the Ajanta caves too are traced back to this era.
Cholas, Pandayas and Pallavas ruled over the southern part of India
during the medieval period of India’s history. Cholas ruled the
territory of Deccan (today the districts of Thanjavur and
Tiruchirapally) while the Pandyas reined around present day Tirunelvelli
and Madurai.
Pallavas of Kanchi rose to prominence in the 4th
Century A.D. and ruled unchallenged for about four hundred years. The
Nayanar and Alvar saint poets belong to this period. The gemlike shore
temples at Mahabalipuram date to this period. The Cholas overthrew the
Pallavas were in the 9th Century and regained political primacy in south
India. The 15th Century saw the decline of the Pandyas.
Now let's look in a little more detail...
Indus Valley Civilization
It is without a doubt that the civilization one of the most important
finds in the world of archeology. In one stroke the age of Indian
history was pushed back by more than a millennium, deep into 3000BC.
This effectively exploded the myth that everything in India before the
coming of the Aryans was enveloped in the supreme darkness of one
primeval swamp. Here was a civilization that was not only
well-developed, but actually far more sophisticated than that of the
Aryans.
The Indus Valley Civilization said its last hurray
roughly in 2200 BC. The beginning and end of the Indus Valley
Civilization are both a matter of debate. Obviously there must have been
a lead up to it. Suddenly, out of the blue, a people could not have
emerged complete with their perfect town planning, neat houses, lovely
jewellery and loads of make-up. So where did they come from? and then
having come, just where did they disappear?
Popular theory
which is accepted by the man on the street is that the people of the
civilization (commonly referred to as the Harappans) were chased out by
the Aryans and went down south. The present South Indians are their
descendants. Recent research also threw up evidence that the Aryans’
descendants actually still survive as santals (tribals) in various
jungle areas in India.
The Settlement of Aryans
It
took the tall, beautiful, long limbed Aryans surprisingly little time to
get used to their new home. Initially, they settled in the area of
Sapt-Sindhu, which included Punjab, Kashmir, Sindh, Kabul and Gandhara
(Kandhar). The chief sources of this period which have come down to us
are The Vedas and the Epics, the Mahabharata and the Ramayana, which
through their stories and hymns tell us about the expansion of the
Aryans. It took them about a thousand years to bring the entire northern
region under their control. Then they turned their attention to the
south. The epic Ramayana is a symbolic tale which tells of the Aryan
expansion to the south – the good, almost godly, aryaputra (an Aryan's
son) king Rama surging forth to finish off the evil Dasyu (that was what
the Aryans called the natives) Ravana.
Aryans Political System
The political system of the Aryans in their initial days here was
amazingly complex, though quite ingenious. They hung around together in
small village settlements (which later grew to kingdoms) and the basis
of their political and social organization was, not surprisingly, the
clan or kula.
Being of somewhat militant nature, this was very much
a patriarchal society, with the man in the house expected to keep his
flock in control.
Groups of kulas together formed a Grama or
village, which was headed by a Gramina. Many villages formed another
political unit called a Visya, headed by a Visyapati. The Visyas in turn
collected under a Jana, which was ruled by a Rajana or king. However,
the precise relationship between the grama, the visya and the jana has
not been clearly defined anywhere.
The King Was The Supreme Power
The king was yet to become that the all-powerful monarch that he
eventually became. Although he lived as befitted a king, he was supposed
to work in tandem with the people's wishes.
He had an elaborate
court of many officials, including the chief queen (Mahishi) who was
expected to help in the decision making process. Two assemblies, Sabha
and Samiti further assisted the king. The Samiti was roughly equivalent
to our modern Lower House or the Lok Sabha, with members that
represented the people, and the Sabha was a permanent body of selected
men.
So everything was very proper and democratic. This was
obviously speedily amended. As one Jana swallowed another and kingdoms
arose out of their ashes, the king became increasingly the despot that
we are all more familiar with. Women seemed to have had it good at this
time, but then through almost all of the ancient period of Indian
history women continued to command respect and considerable pull in
society. Although by the time of the Mahabharata their position had
fallen enough for them to be treated as a man's property, as is evinced
by the episode where Yudhistra gambles away his wife (see Mahabharata).
No Rigidity In Caste System
The caste system as is known now does not seem to have evolved yet.
and even when it did, it was not the rigid thing it became by the time
of the Guptas but was a loose social system where people could move up
and down the social scale. Aryan’s worshipped nature gods – they prayed
to the Usha (Dawn), Prajapati (The Creator), Rudra (Thunder), Indra
(Rain), Surya (Sun) and so on. These gods and goddesses were appeased by
prayers and sacrifices.
As time went this idyllic life among the
beautiful wooded country with a benevolent monarch, a democratic senate
and an open social system failed to survive. Power won over all else.
Period of Social Reform
By the sixth century BC things had become complicated and rigid enough
for socio-religious reformers like the Buddha and Mahavira to want
change. The priestly class, as happened the world over, became
increasingly the real masters in the socio-economic-political scheme of
affairs. Rituals became rigid, sacrifices elaborate and religion
increasingly expensive.
Birth of Mahavira [550 BC]
Vardhamana Mahavira was not the founder of Jainism, but he reformed and
refined previous teachings of the Jaina tradition. Mahavira was born in
599 BC in Kaundinyapura near modern Patna. Scholars debate the birth
date and place. Some claim it to be as late as 490 BC in Kundapura near
Vaishali or in Vaishali, which is in present day Bihar. Mahavira was
born to a high-ranking family and received an education fit for a
nobleman. He learned about literature, art, philosophy, and military and
administrative sciences. Mahavira married a princess named Yasoda and
had a daughter named Anojja. When Mahavira was 28, his parents died, and
Mahavira wanted to abandon everything and everyone.
To please his
brother, Mahavira decided to stay at his home until the age of 30. For
those two years, Mahavira practiced self-discipline and gave up luxuries
by giving charity to beggars.
When Mahavira left his family
at the age of 30, he also gave up all property, wealth, and pleasures.
He left his home and mediated, fasted, and went without water. After all
this, Mahavira tore out his hair and wandered naked with a piece of
cloth on his shoulder. Mahavira essentially became a homeless man. This
did not bother Mahavira, because he was going to teach the Jain
Religion. Vardhamma Mahavira became the 24th Tirthankara or "ford-maker"
of the Jain or Jaina Religion.
Mahavira traveled naked to
various parts of northern India, teaching and preaching. These parts
included Bihar, western Bengal, and western Uttar Pradesh. Mahavira
attracted all kinds of people, including kings, queens, rich, poor and
both men and women.
Mahavira taught that the center of right
conduct was the five great vows of which he preached until his death.
Four were from the previous teacher Parshva, and the fifth was his own.
The vows were (asteya) to not take anyone's private possessions, (satya)
to always tell the truth, (aparigraha) to not own any property,
(ahimsa) to not injure or annoy any living thing, and (brahmacarya) to
have complete celibacy. Parshva let his followers wear clothing, but
Mahavira did not want his followers to wear any. In this, Mahavira was
very faithful to his teachings. The most noticeable extent of these vows
was that Mahavira let vermin inhabit his body, because it was wrong to
kill any living creature. Mahavira vowed to neglect his body and agreed
to suffer all things that could happen. "Mahavira taught 73 methods for
exertion in goodness by which many creatures, who believed in and
accepted them, studied, learned, understood, and practiced them, and
acted according to them, obtained perfection, enlightenment,
deliverance, beatitude, and an end to all misery". This was the very
extreme form of the vow. He gave up all he had and was celibate.
Mahavira's quest, for himself and others, was to finally reach nirvana
or salvation. Nirvana is the attainment of the blissful state of one's
self and of total freedom from the cycle of birth, death, life, pain,
and misery. The final step for Mahavira and all that follow him was the
final removal of the karma or self. Mahavira attained nirvana the 13th
year of his new Jain life. This happened while he was fasting, not
drinking water for two days, and meditating. Not only did Mahavira
attain nirvana but he also attained kevala. Kevala is the absolute
knowledge and is the highest awareness.
Vardhamma Mahavira
finally died in 527 BC at the age of 72. Mahavira is believed to have
become Siddha, never to go through the cycle of birth and death.
Mahavira was able to rid himself of karma by destroying it and won his
soul's salvation by never returning to earth.
Gautama Buddha [563-483 BC]
Sidhartha was born (c. 563 BC; Kapilavastu, Nepal) into the Gautama
family of the Shakaya clan. The Shakayas were members of the
priestly-warrior caste. In fact, Sidhartha's father was the head of the
tribe so Sidhartha was a prince and seemed destined to rule. He lived a
luxurious life and the received the best education his father's wealth
could provide, but his father also sheltered him from life's hardships.
He married a woman named Yashodhara and they lived in his father's
house. Sidhartha was still protected from the trials of life. Yashodhara
bore a son, and Sidhartha believed that he was happy.
Then,
during one of his few excursions from the protection of his father's
palace, Sidhartha saw three things which opened the harsh realities of
life to him. He saw an old man, suffering from the frailties of age. He
saw a sick man, suffering from disease. He also saw a dead man, which
shocked him greatly. He finally realized that the infirmities of old
age, and the pain of sickness and death caused suffering that he had
never experienced. This revelation caused him to begin a search for
truth that drastically changed his life, and, eventually, the lives of
millions.
At the age of twenty-nine he left his home, his
wife, his son, and his father. He gave up his claim to the succession of
his father's throne and left the palace. He studied Yogic meditation
with two Brahman hermits and achieved high cognitive states in both
trance and meditation, but his desire for absolute truth was not
satisfied.
For the next six years, Sidhartha placed his body
under severe asceticism, which included extreme fasting and suspension
of breathing. These practices almost killed him, but they did not
satisfy his search for truth.
He finally ended his acetic
lifestyle and began to eat. Sidhartha decided to meditate until the
absolute truth would lie clearly in front of him. He meditated under a
Bodhi tree where he sat facing east.
At the age of
thirty-five, on the night of the full moon, Sidhartha reached
enlightenment and became an "enlightened one"--a Buddha (c. 528 BC) He
had at last discovered the truth he had sought, and he immediately
shared it with five ascetics who had practiced near him.
After
a few weeks of rest, he decided to teach the way to enlightenment to
others and went to Deer Garden where he held his first sermon, " The
turning wheel of Dharma." Sidhartha felt a strong call to teach others
even though he could never teach the content of enlightenment, only the
way of enlightenment. Buddha called his teachings "the middle way",
because it was in the middle between asceticism and indulgence.
For the next forty-five years he taught as the Buddha or "Shakyamuni"
(sage of the shakaya"). He also established a community of monks called
sanga.
The Buddha died after forty-five years of teaching at the age of eighty.
Bimbisara- The Magadhan Ruler of Sisunga Dynasty
The first important Magadhan king who emerges into the limelight was
Bimbisara (544-491 BC) of the Sisunga dynasty. He was an extremely
polished diplomat and crafty statesman.
While the earlier rulers
had brought Magadha out of clear and present danger, it was Bimbisara
who consolidated and increased that power and really gave it the
identity of a kingdom.
Through some clever marital and martial
policies he pushed the frontiers of Magadha over, according to a source,
eighty thousand villages. Bimbisara was a contemporary of the Buddha
and met him twice, thanks to his wife Khema's reverence for the teacher.
We learn that when he met him the second time, in Rajgriha (which is an
important Buddhist pilgrimage today), Bimbisara converted to Buddhism.
Assasination of Bimbisara
Apparently Bimbisara was assasinated by his impatient son Ajatsatru,
who was a good friend of the Buddha's cousin Devadutta. This Devadutta,
not to be judged by his cousin's credentials, was very much a blot on
his family name and talked Ajatsatru into killing his father in the
first place.
However, there is evidence that his crime weighed
on Ajatsatru's mind, and in the end he confessed his crime to the
Buddha before converting to Buddhism. Apart from this, Ajatsatru was
very much his father's son and continued his imperialist policies. One
particularly bitter, acrimonious and prolonged rivalry went on between
him and the Lichchavi dynasty that ruled Vaishali (in Bihar), which he
eventually managed to conquer.
Ajatsatru was obviously a
colorful character and a man of sentiment. There are tales of his
passionate affair with the chief courtesan of Vaishali, called Amrapali.
Then, when the Buddha attained parinirvana (nirvana from all births and
bonds), Ajatsatru insisted upon a part of his relics be buried in a
stupa (shrine) that he got erected in Rajgriha. He said, "The lord was a
kshatriya (the warrior caste of the Varna system), so am I. Therefore I
am worthy of a share of his relics upon which I will erect a stupa."
The Fading Glory of Sisunga Dynasty
The Sisunga dynasty faded fast after Ajatsatru; having produced two
rulers with force enough for twenty, the dynasty bowed out. The last
recorded ruler of the family was Kakavarna who was put to death by
Mahapadmananda, of the Nanda dynasty which followed the Sisungas.
The Nandas could never be popular rulers despite their airs of
magnificence and immense wealth (which they amassed by huge taxation).
They were of lowborn sudra stock and hence had the odds stacked against
them right from the start. By now the kings had become the more familiar
despots and were becoming increasingly unapproachable.
The Nandas,
though very powerful with a huge standing army and a grand court, were
apparently a very vain lot. Indeed, traditional sources give us a very
unflattering picture of the kings of this family. Much of this can be
discounted – the Nandas were sudras to start with (which queered them
with the Aryan Brahmins who were writing one half of these sources) and
never bothered to associate with the Buddhists and Jains (who were
writing the other half).
The Nanda who unwittingly became the
most famous of the entire dynasty was Dhanananda. He started his own
downfall by insulting a certain unsightly looking Brahmin, who
unfortunately for Dhanananda, turned out to have surprising vision,
intellect and Machiavellian cunning.
Chanakya - The Man With Master Mind
This Brahmin was called Chanakya. This was time (around 326BC) when
Alexander came visiting India's northwest borders along Taxila where the
king, called Ambhi, laid out the red carpet for him. There was an
active concern among all except the king Dhanananda himself that
Alexander would come all the way to Magadha. The first thing that
Chanakya tried to achieve was to raise a confederacy against the foreign
invader. Though this attempt, to a large extent failed, what it did
manage was to bring Chanakya into political limelight of the day. He
made many friends in high places, which set him off on a bigger goal –
to overthrow the Nandas.
One of the main reasons the confederacy
against Alexander never got going was that Magadha, as the most powerful
kingdom and the obvious leader for the rest to follow, simply refused
to fall in. Dhanananda apparently not only flatly refused to spend good
cash on a mad project like this, but also managed to offend Chanakya so
thoroughly by his insolent behavior that the Brahmin went away convinced
that the king deserved to be overthrown. It was a good thing that
Chanakya's concerns were in vain; Alexander never did come all the way
to Magadha; in fact, he didn't even get close. Long before that summer
set in and his armies started grumbling, while he himself fell ill (this
illness would eventually be the end of the great king in 323BC, at a
tragically early age of 32). So the Greek armies turned around after
leaving Seleucus Nikator as Alexander's general in the region.
The Greeks established a colony along the border who eventually mingled
with the local populace, thus forming a new stock of people. This meant
not only political, but also cultural and social exchange with the
Greek which influenced Indian warfare, painting and sculpture (a whole
school of art called Gandhara School of art come up of the amalgam),
trade and economy. While we, in turn, influenced their science,
astronomy, art and philosophy.
In these exciting times,
Chanakya was going about with a single-minded focus to find a
replacement for Dhananada. This, he found in young Chandragupta Maurya
(324-298BC).
Conquest of Alexander in India [327 BC]
The
throne of Macedon in south-east Europe has been occupied by Alexander.
Having defeated the last of the Persian rulers and conquered the
Acharmenian empire, Alexander has vowed to conquer the Indian satraps.
His army has crossed the Hindukush mountains and is strengthening its
position near Kabul. He has captured the fortresses of Massaga and
Aornos. Alexander is from a far off land called Greece. This is
reportedly beyond the horizon.
The astonishing fact about this he
is just 21 years old! It's known from well-placed sources that he is
planning to launch a major attack on the Pauravan king across the Jhelum
river. The Pauravan king is planning a massive counter attack.
India, 326 BC: Alexander moves through the dense jungles of Ohind.
Then, having crossed the Indus river and secured the help of the Ambhi,
king of Taxila, Alexander marches on to the Jhelum. The Pauravan king
with an army of 30,000 soldiers, horses and elephants provided fierce
resistance but was eventually defeated.
When Alexander asked
the Pauravan king to bow, the latter answered, "Act like a King".
Impressed by the Pauravan king's efforts he has given him back his
kingdom. Alexander has moved further. He concentrated on capturing the
Chenab and Ravi plains upto Beas. This strategy of Alexander is typical
of the great Greek rulers. Having conquered several tribes and satraps,
Alexander has received many presents including brocades, gems, tigers,
etc. He wanted to move further towards the Ganges valley, but has been
stopped by his tired troops.
So with a heavy heart, Alexander
has retraced his steps to the Jhelum. He has been severally wounded
while storming one of the citadels of the powerful tribe of Malavas.
Through the desserts of Baluchistan and with terrible sufferings, he has
reached Babylon. And in 323 BC , not very long after his return to
Babylon, Alexander dies.
"The hold of the great king
[Alexander] on the Indian frontier slackened considerably in the fourth
century BC. The arduous campaigns of Alexander restored the fallen
fabric of imperialism and laid the foundation of a closer contact
between India and the Hellenic world. The Macedonian empire in the Indus
valley no doubt perished within a short time. But the Macedonian had
welded the political atoms into one unit and thus paved the way for the
permanent union under the Mauryas."
The Mauryan Dynasty (The first Indian Empire)
Chandragupta Maurya [322-298 BC]
Chandragupta, with the help Chanakya (Kautilya), who is also known as
the Indian Machiavelli, destroyed the Nanda rulers of Magadha and
established the Mauryan empire. It is said that Chanakya met
Chandragupta in the Vindhya forest, after being insulted by the Nanda
king.
Alexander's invasion prompted Indians to develop a
centralised state. Chandragupta declared war and defeated Selucus
Nicator, the Macedonian ruler of the Northwestern territories captured
by Alexander the Great.
Along with the the astute advice of
Chanakya, Chandragupta also seized Punjab, Kabul, Khandahar, Gandhara
and Persia from Seluces. Seluces' daughter was married to Chandragupta.
"Selucus failed and had to conclude a treaty with Chandragupta by which
he surrendered a large territory including, in the opinion of certain
writers, the satrapies of Paropanisadai (Kabul), Aria (Herat), Arachosia
(Qanadahar) and Gedrosia (Baluchistan), in return for 500 elephants.
The treaty was probably cemented by a marriage contract. A Greek envoy
was accredited to the Court of Pataliputra."
- An Advanced History of India
by RC Majumdar, HC Raychaudhri & Kalinkar Datta
The most important result of this treaty was that Chandragupta's fame
spread far and wide and his empire was recognised as a great power in
the western countries. The kings of Egypt and Syria sent ambassadors to
the Mauryan Court.
Chandragupta Maurya's origins were shrouded
in mystery. Having been brought up by peacock tamers, he could be of
low caste birth. According to other sources, Chandragupta Maurya was the
son of a Nanda prince and a dasi called Mura. It is also possible that
Chandragupta was of the Maurya tribe of Kshatriyas.
Maurya
empire was the first really large and powerful centralised state in
India. It was very well governed, with tempered autocracy at the top and
democracy at the city and village levels. Megasthenes, the Greek
ambassador at the court of Chandragupta Maurya in Pataliputra, had
expressed his admiration for the efficient administration of the empire.
His book 'Indica' is a collection of comments of other Roman &
Greek travelers, and Megasthenes wrote about the prosperity of the
Mauryan cities.
He further reported that agriculture was
healthy, water abundant and mineral wealth was in plenty. Speaking of
the general prosperity, Megasthenes wrote, "the Indians, dressed in
bright and rich colors, they liberally used ornaments and gems." He also
spoke of the division of society according to occupation and the large
number of religious sects and foreigners in the empire.
Chandragupta Maurya's son Bindusara became the new Mauryan Emperor by
inheriting an empire including the Hindukush, Narmada, Vindhyas, Mysore,
Bihar, Bengal, Orissa, Assam, Baluchistan & Afghanistan.
Mauryan Empire - Bindusara [298 BC]
After ruling for about twenty five years, Chandragupta left his throne
to his son Bindusara and became a Jain ascetic. Bindusara inherited an
empire including the Hindukush, Narmada, Vindhyas, Mysore, Bihar,
Bengal, Orissa, Assam, Baluchistan & Afghanistan. He was called
Amitraghata which means "slayer of foes" by Greek writers.
Bindusara extended his empire further as far as south Mysore. He
conquered sixteen states and extended the empire from sea to sea. The
empire included the whole of India except the region of Kalinga (modern
Orissa) and the Dravidian kingdoms of the south. The Dravidians kingdoms
of the Cholas, Pandyas and Cheras were very friendly with the Mauryan
empire and so the king felt no need to conquer them. However, Kalinga
was not friendly with the Mauryans and so a war was fought between the
people of Kalinga and Mauryans led by Bindusara's son Ashoka.
Administration during Bindusara's Reign
Bindusara maintained good relations with Selucus Nicator and the
emperors regularly exchanged ambassadors and presents. He also
maintained the friendly relations with the Hellenic West established by
his father. Ambassadors from Syria and Egypt lived at Bindusara's court.
He preferred the Ajivika philosophy rather than Jainism.
Mauryan Empire - Ashoka [273 BC]
Ashoka, the most trusted son of Bindusara and the grandson of
Chandragupta Maurya, was a brave soldier. He was the most famous of the
Mauryan kings and was one of the greatest rulers of India. During his
father's reign, he was the governor of Ujjain and Taxila. Having
sidelined all claims to the throne from his brothers, Ashoka was
coronated as an emperor. Ashoka extended the Maurya Empire to the whole
of India except the deep south and the south-east, reaching out even
into Central Asia.
The Kalinga War [261 BC]
Ashoka
succeeded in conquering Kalinga after a bloody war in which 100,000 men
were killed, 150,000 injured and thousands were captured and retained as
slaves. The sight of the slaughter involved in his conquest deeply
distressed Ashoka and deeply affected his mind. This was a turning point
in his life. He renounced war and sought peace in Buddha's preachings
of love and ahimsa (non-violence). The war also developed in him a
hatred for all kinds of violence. So he gave up hunting and slaughtering
of animals. He became a strict vegetarian.
Under his reign
Buddhism spread to Syria, Egypt, Macedonia, Central Asia, Burma. For
propagation of Buddhism, he started inscribing edicts on rocks and
pillars at places where people could easily read them. These pillars and
rocks are still found in India, spreading their message of love and
peace for the last two thousand years. To his ideas he gave the name
Dharma. Ashoka died in 232 BC. The capital of Ashoka pillar at Sarnath
is adopted by India as its national emblem. The "Dharma Chakra" on the
Ashoka Pillar adorns our National Flag.
Fall of Mauryas
Emperor Ashoka ruled for 37 years. He died in 232 BC. During his reign
he gave up war and preached peace in the kingdom. Seven kings (some say
10) followed Ashoka within a period of 50 years. The Mauryan empire was
breaking up. There are different opinions about the fall of the kingdom.
Some say that since the later part of Ashoka's reign was devoid of
wars, the military were inactive and this weakened them. Others say
after Ashoka there were no strong kings to rule such a vast empire.
Sungas Dynasty
The last ruler of the Mauryan dynasty was Brithadratha. He was killed
by his own commander-in-chief Pushyamitra Sunga in 185 BC.
With the fall of Mauryas, India lost its political unity. Pushyamitra
Sunga became the ruler of the Magadha and neighbouring territories. The
north-western regions comprising Rajputana, Malwa and Punjab passed into
the hands of the foreign rulers. The kingdom of Pushyamitra was
extended upto Narmada in the south, and controlled Jalandhar and Sialkot
in the Punjab in the north-western regions.
Pushyamitra died
after ruling for 36 years (187-151 BC). He was succeeded by son
Agnimitra. This prince is the hero of a famous drama by India's greatest
playwright, Kalidasa. Agnimitra used to hold his court in the city of
Vidisa, modern Besnagar in Eastern Malwa. The power of the Sungas
gradually weakened. It is said that there were ten Sunga kings.
Kanva Dynasty (75BC - 30BC)
The last ruler of the Sunga dynasty was overthrown by Vasudeva of the
Kanva dynasty in 75 BC. The Kanva ruler allowed the kings of the Sunga
dynasty to continue to rule in obscurity in a corner of their former
dominions. Magadha was ruled by four Kanva rulers. In 30 BC, the
southern power swept away both the Kanvas and Sungas and the province of
Eastern Malwa was absorbed within the dominions of the conqueror.
The Satvahana Dynasty
After the decline of the Mauryan empire the Satvahanas established
their kingdom in the Deccan. They were also known as Andhras. They first
rose to power in present Maharashtra on the banks of the Godavari. The
founder of the Satvahanas was Simuka. But the man who raised it to
eminence was Satakarni I. The Satvahana dynasty began its rule in about
40 or 30 BC, and continued until the 3rd century AD.
Satakarni
I allied with powerful Marathi chieftain and signalled his accession to
power by performing ashvamedhas (horse-sacrifice). After his death, the
Satvahana power seemed to have been submerged beneath a wave of
Scythian invasion.
Reign of Gautamiputra (AD 80-104)
Gautamiputra Satakarni was the famous king during the Satvahana dynasty.
He defeated the Sakas (Scythians), Yavanas (Greeks) and Pahlavas
(Parithans). His empire extended upto Banavasi in the south, and
included Maharashtra, Konkan, Saurashtra, Malwa, west Rajasthan and
Vidharbha. His son, Vasishtiputra, ruled at Paithan on the banks of
Godavari.
Two other cities, Vaijayanti (in North Kanara) and
Amravati (in the Guntur district), attained eminence during the
Satvahana period. Kings succeeding Gautamiputra lost many of their
territories. But the power of Satvahanas revived under Sri Yajna
Satakarni, who was the last great king. After him, the empire began to
decline.
Some scholars say the there were 19 kings of this
dynasty which ruled for 300 years, while others say there were 30 kings
who ruled for 456 years. The dynasty came to an end about the middle of
the third century AD. (after AD 220). Their empire broke up into small
states ruled by the Abhiras, Chutus, Ikshvakus, Pallavas.
Establishment of Kushans (AD 50)
The Kushans were a branch of the nomadic Yeuhchi tribe of China. The
Yeuhchi tribe was in conflict with another tribe and so was forced to
leave China. They came to Central Asia and then spread to Bactria,
Paritha and Afghanistan. Gradually they were divided into five branches.
One of these branches -- Kouel Chougang (Kushans) -- was superior to
all. The Kushans under Kujala attacked the Parithans, took possessions
of Ki-pin and Kabul and became the complete master of the Indian
borderland.
Kujala became the first king of the Kushans and
was known as Kadphises I. He was a great warrior. He was succeeded by
his son Wima Kadphises known as Kadphises II. He conquered the
north-western region of India. He defeated Saka Satraps in the
north-west. Punjab and Sind were his dominions.
Reign of Kanishka (AD 120)
Kanishka was the most famous of the Kushan kings. It is not known how
he became the king but he ascended the throne in AD 120. When Kanishka
ascended the throne, his empire consisted of Afghanistan, Sind, Punjab
and portions of the former Parithan and Bactrian kingdoms. His empire
extended from the north-west and Kashmir, over most of the Gangetic
valley. He annexed three provinces of the Chinese empire, namely,
Tashkand, Khotan and Yarkhand. He was the only king who ruled over these
territories. He had two capitals at Purushpura (Peshawar now in
Pakistan) and at Mathura in west Uttar Pradesh. Kanishka proved that he
was a great conqueror.
Successors of Kanishka
Kanishka's
immediate successor was Vashiska who was then succeeded by Huvishka.
Mathura became the centre of Kushans. Many monuments were erected during
Huvishka's reign. The last great king of Kushans was Vasudev I. The
Kushans were overthrown by the Sassanians of Persia in the north-west
and the Guptas in the north. The rule of Kushans ended almost at the
same time as that of the Satavahans in the south.
Buddhism during the Kushans
Kanishka embraced Buddhism towards the middle of his reign. He is said
to have been Zoroastrian before he became Buddhist. He spent his
resources in spreading Buddhism. Mahayana was the new form of Buddhism
that was followed during this period where the Buddha was worshipped as
God. Old monastries were repaired and many new ones were built.
Art, Science and Literature
Kanishka was a great patron of art and literature. A new form of art
Gandhara Art was developed. Beautiful images of Buddha were developed in
a Greek-Roman style. These images were carved in a realistic way, with
graceful bodies and curly hair.
Kanishka's court was adorned
by many scholars like Ashvaghosha, Vasumitra, Nagarjuna and Charaka.
Ashvaghosha was a great poet and a master of music. He wrote
Buddhacharita, a biography of the Buddha. Charak was a great physician
and he wrote a book Charak Samhita, which is based on the Ayurvedic
system of medicine.
Gupta Dynasty
After the Kushans, the
Guptas were the most important dynasty. The information about Guptas is
known from the archaeological remains, inscriptions and coins. Early in
the beginning of the fourth century, a chief called Sri Gupta ruled a
small kingdom in Magadha. He was then succeeded by his son Ghatokacha.
They were mostly minor rulers in east Uttar Pradesh and Bihar.
Reign of Chandragupta I (AD 320-335)
The first famous king of the Gupta dynasty was Ghatokacha's son
Chandragupta I. He married Kumaradevi, the daughter of the chief of the
Lichhavis. This marriage was a turning point to Chandragupta I. He got
Patliputra in dowry from the Lichhavis. From Patliputra, he laid the
foundation of his empire and started conquering many neighbouring states
with the help of the Lichhavis. He ruled over Magadha (Bihar), Prayaga
and Saketa (east Uttar Pradesh). His kingdom extended from the river
Ganges to Allahabad. Chandragupta I also got the title of
Maharajadhiraja (King of Kings) and ruled for about fifteen years.
An important act of Chandragupta I was the holding of an assembly of
councillors and members of the royal family at which Prince Samudragupta
was formally nominated as the successor of the Gupta empire.
Harishena's Inscription
Samudragupta was the son of Chandragupta I and though the exact date
of his birth is not known, it seems he must have ascended the throne
after the death of his father Chandragupta I in AD 335. The information
about his reign is on an inscription engraved on a pillar at Allahabad.
The text of this inscription was recorded by Harishena, the court poet
of Samudragupta. Part of the inscription was lost in the course of time.
Harishena's inscription tells us about Samudragupta's various conquests
and small kingdoms existing at that time. Samudragupta also left an
extensive coinage which supports the information of the inscription.
Samudragupta's Conquest
Samudragupta was a great warrior. His passion of conquest was so great
that he did not rest till he captured almost whole of India. It seems
Samudragupta first waged wars against the neighbouring kingdoms of
Shichchhatra (Rohilkhand) and Padmavati (in Central India), then ruled
by Achyuta and Nagasena. Then he incorporated in the Gupta empire the
kingdom of Kota kings by defeating him. He also waged wars against
tribal states like those of Malvas, the Yaudheyas, the Arjunayanas, the
Maduras and the Abhiras. The descendants of Kushanas, many chieftains of
Sakas, the Ceylonese hastened to propitiate the great Gupta by offering
homage and tribute or presents.
Samudragupta's daring adventure
was his military expedition to the south along the coast of the Bay of
Bengal. He defeated Mahendra of Khosla, Mantaraja of Kurala,
Mahendragiri of Pithapuram, Svamidatta of Kottura, Damana of
Erandapalla, Vishnugupta - the Pallava king of Kanchi, Kubera of
Devarashtrain the Vizagapatam district and Dhananjaya of Kushthalapur
possible in North Arcot. Samudragupta did not go beyond the river
Krishna.
Towards the west, Samudragupta subdued Palaghat,
Maharashtra and Khandesh. He did not annex any part of the Deccan to his
empire as he knew that it would be difficult to control those
territories situated so far from Patliputra.
Samudragupta's
territories extended from the Himalayas in the north to the river
Narbada in the south and from the Brahamaputra river in the east to the
Yamuna river in the west. Then there were other kingdoms like Assam,
Nepal, Devaka, Kartipura.
Samudragupta's Reign
Samudragupta is considered as one of the greatest rulers in Indian
history. He is also compared to Alexander or Napoleon as a conqueror. He
performed Ashwamedha Yajna (horse sacrifice) after defeating nine kings
in the north and twelve kings in the south to underline the importance
of his conquest of almost the whole of India. He also assumed the title
of Maharajadhiraja (King of Kings) and Chakravartin (Universal Monarch).
Samudragupta was not a only a great warrior but also a great patron of
art and literature. He gathered around himself a galaxy of poets and
scholars, the most prominent ones being Harishena, Vasubandhu and
Asanga. He himself was a great poet and musician. In one of his coins,
he is shown playing the Veena. Samudragupta was a staunch believer of
Hinduism and was a worshiper of Lord Vishnu. He also respected other
religions like Buddhism and also allowed the Buddhist king of Ceylon to
build a monastery at Bodh-Gaya.
Empire of Chandragupta II [AD 380-413]
Chandragupta succeeded his father Samudragupta. He got the title of
Vikramaditya (son of power), so he is also known as Chandragupta
Vikramaditya. Chandragupta II proved to be of the same military mettle
of his father and brought large amounts of territory in Western India
under the Gupta empire.
From the inscription of the Mehrauli
Iron Pillar of Chandragupta II situated in Delhi, it is learnt that he
waged successful wars against several chiefs of Vanga (Bengal). However
Chandragupta II's greatest achievement was the victory over the Saka
Satraps of Malwa, Gujarat and Saurashtra.
Chandragupta's Biggest Achievement
Chandragupta marched against the Saka Satraps about AD 389. After six
years of courageous fighting, he killed the Sakas chieftains. He killed
Rudrasena III, a Saka king of West India. He annexed all the three
kingdoms of Satraps under Gupta empire and made Ujjain a second capital,
and called himself Vikramaditya -- a combination of words valour and
sun. Chandragupta's empire had both the Arabian Sea coast and that of
the Bay of Bengal under its control. He also captured Bactria and
concluded marital alliances with the Nagas, Vakatakas and Kadamba
dynasties.
Like his grandfather, Chandragupta married the Lichhavi
princess Kumaradevi. He gave his daughter Prabhavati in marriage to
Rudrasena II, the Venkata king of Central India. Rudrasena had helped
him in his campaign against the Saka Satraps.
Administrations and Coins
The account of administration of Chandragupta's reign is known from
the Chinese pilgrim Fa Hein who came to India during that period. The
administration was very well organised with very light taxes. The empire
was divided into many provinces which were ruled by independent
governors. The provinces were further divided into districts. Land
revenue was the main source of income of the state and was normally
one-sixth of the produce of the land.
The emperor also issued a
host of gold, silver and copper coins to celebrate his reign. His coins
featured Vishnu and his garuda, as well as images of himself killing a
lion, among others. Experts say that Chandragupta II's coin are of a
finer quality than had been seen thus far.
Chandragupta II was succeeded by his son Kumargupta who was also a great ruler.
Reign of Kumaragupta [AD 415-455]
Chandragupta II (Vikramaditya) was succeeded by his son Kumaragupta.
Like his father, Kumaragupta was also a very great and able ruler. He
was able to keep the vast empire, which extended from North Bengal to
Kathiawar and from the Himalayas to the Nerbudda, intact. He ruled
efficiently for nearly forty years. However, the last days of his reign
were not good. The Gupta empire was threatened by the invasions of
Pushyamitras. The Pushyamitras were a tribe of foreigners who were
settled in Central India. However, Kumaragupta was successful in
defeating the invaders and performed Ashvamedha Yajna (horse sacrifice)
to celebrate his victory. He issued new coins with images of Lord
Kartikeya.
Skandagupta becomes the King
Kumaragupta died
in AD 455 and was succeeded by his son Skandagupta. During his reign,
the invasions of the Huns became more frequent. Skandagupta repelled
their early invasions and recovered most of the imperial provinces.
But the continuous attack of the Huns weakened the Gupta empire.
Skandagupta died in AD 467. After his death, the Gupta empire began to
decline.
Decline of the Gupta Empire
Inscriptions prove
that the Gupta sovereignty was acknowledged in the Jabbalpur region in
the Nebudda valley as late as AD 528, and in North Bengal till AD
543-544. Kumaragupta is known to have been ruling in AD 473-474,
Buddhagupta from AD 476-495, Vainyagupta in AD 508 and Bhanugupta in AD
510-511. The Gupta empire became to disintegrate and till the middle of
the sixth century AD, they had merely became petty chiefs.
Harsha Vardhana -- The Ruler of Vardhana Dynasty
The final important ruler of Ancient Indian history was Harsha
Vardhana (606-646AD), who ruled not from Magadha but Thanesar (in modern
Haryana area) of the Vardhana dynasty. He was a Buddhist and convened
many Buddhist assemblies. The second Chinese traveller to come to India,
Huien Tsang, arrived during his reign.
By all accounts Harsha was
all the usual things that one associates with a good king. However, lots
of petty dynasties like the Maukharis and the Vakatakas had started
springing up all over the place, and the confusion which is generally
associated with the absence of a strong central dynasty was rife.
The south presented a medley of dynasties around the time of Harsha
Vardhana. There were the Pandyas (in regions of Mudurai, Travancore and
Tinnevelly), the Chalukyas (in present Maharashtra region) and Pallavas
(in modern Tamil Nadu region), who had this terrific battle of supremacy
going constantly. Pulakesan II (610-642AD) was the ablest of the
Chalukyan kings and for a time managed to keep the Chalukyan flag flying
above the others. But strictly for a time being.
The Chalukyas gained Importance
The Chalukyas rose to power in the Deccan from the fifth to eighth
century and again from the tenth to twelfth century. They ruled over the
area between the Vindhyan mountain and the river Krishna. The Chalukyas
were sworn enemies of the Pallavas and rose to power in Karnataka. The
first great ruler of the Chalukya dynasty was Pulakesin I. He founded
Vatapi (modern Badami in Bijapur district) and made it his capital. He
is said to have performed Ashwamedha Yagna (horse sacrifice). The
kingdom was further extended by his sons Kirtivarman and Mangalesa by
waging many successful wars against the neighbours including Mauryans of
the Konkans.
Reign of Pulakesin II
Pulakesin II was the
son of Kirtivarman. He was the the greatest ruler of the Chalukya
dynasty. He ruled for almost 34 years. In this long reign, he
consolidated his authority in Maharashtra and conquered large parts of
the Deccan from the banks of the Nerbudda to the reign beyond the
Kaveri. His greatest achievement was his victory in the defensive war
against Harshvardhan in 620. In 641, the Chinese pilgrim Hiuen Tsang,
visited the kingdom and said that the king was served by his nobles with
perfect loyalty.
However the last days of the king were not happy.
Pulakesin was defeated and killed by the Pallav king Narasimhavarman in
642. His capital Vatapi was completely destroyed.
End of Chalukya Dynasty
Pulakestin was succeeded by his son Vikramaditya who was also as great
a ruler as his father. He renewed the struggle against his southern
enemies. He recovered the former glory of the Chalukyas to a great
extent. Even his great grandson Vikramaditya II was also a great
warrior. He actually entered the Pallava capital. In 753, Vikramaditya
and his son were overthrown by a chief named Dantidurga who laid the
foundation of the next great empire of Karnataka and Maharashtra, that
of Rashtrakutas.
