MAURYAN AGE
Introduction
During the fourth century B.C. one of the most illustrious and the
most extensive empires was formed in India. The Nandas had definitely
raised Magadha to the status of political pre-eminence in India and its
boundaries were certainly extensive.
The Mauryas
established a vast empire in India whose boundaries practically included
not only the entire Indian territories (barring a part of the South)
but territories beyond the frontiers of India in the North-West. No
Indian empire stands in comparison with it. Of course, Muhammad Bin
Tughluq and Aurangzeb, after them, extended the territories of their
empires which comprised practically the whole of India. Yet, their
territories were no match to the territories of the Mauryas. The
Maurya empire was distinguished, but its sound administration and its
commitment and success in achieving public welfare also provided it a
unique place in Indian history.
The sources of Maurya History
Authentic contemporary sources are available which guide us in tracing
the history of the Mauryas. The Puranas of the Hindus, Buddhist texts
like Dipavamsa, Mahabodhivansa and Mahavamsa, and Jaina texts like
Kaplasutra of Bhadrabhahu and Parisista-Parva of Hemachandra form some
of its important sources. Amongst descriptions of foreign writers,
particularly those of the Greeks, the accounts of Nearchus, Herodotus,
Aristobulus and Megasthenes have been regarded valuable. The Indica
written by Megasthenes is not available, yet Greek scholars like Strabo,
Pliny, Arrian, Plutarch, Justin etc. took advantage of the description
given in it. The Arthasastra of Kautiliya, Mudrarakshasa of
Visakhadatta, Kathasarita-Sagar of Somdeva etc. are other important
literary sources. Amongst these written records, the Arthasastra of
Kautilya and Indica of Megasthenes have been accepted as most valuable.
Besides the rock inscriptions of Emperor Asoka; his columns and the
Stupas are other helping sources to peep into the history of the
Mauryas.
2.1 CHANDRA GUPTA TO ASHOKA
Chandra Gupta Maurya
Chandra Gupta was the founder of the Maurya empire. He liberated the
north-western part of India from Greek domination, grabbed power in
Magadha from the hands of its tyrannical ruler Dhana Nand, established a
mighty empire in India whose boundaries crossed the natural frontiers
of India, provided his empire a sound administrative system which
successfully continued during the period of his successors, and defeated
Selucus Nikator (conqueror) which established the superiority of Indian
arms over the Greeks and opened the way of communication between India
and the north-west. Therefore, Chandra Gupta has been regarded as one of
the greatest emperors of India.
Early Career
Chandra Gupta started his career from a very humble position and there
are differences of opinion with regard to his family. The Greek writer,
Justin, described him as a son of humble origin; the Jaina tradition
represented him as a son of the daughter of the headman of a village
which was inhabited by peacock-tamers the Vishnu Purana suggested that
he was base-born; and the view was corroborated in the drama
Mudraraksha. It stated that the mother of Chandra Gupta was Mura who was
Sudra and supposed to be a wife of king Nand.
However, the
Buddhist text Mahavamsa described that Chandra Gupta belonged to a
kshatriya clan called Moriya. It is now the accepted view of the
majority of scholars that Chandra Gupta belonged to the kshatriya clan
called the Moriyas originally ruling over Pipphalivana which probably
lay in modern Uttar Pradesh. After the death of her husband, the mother
of Chandra Gupta shifted to Pataliputra for safety where she gave birth
to his illustrious son. Chandra Gupta was first brought up by a cowherd,
and then by a hunter. Chanakya who was a renowned teacher at the
University of Taxila, saw him while once passing through his village. He
was attracted by his promising personality, took him to Taxila and gave
him education for nearly eight years with a view to making him capable
of leading the war of liberation against the Greeks and also to depose
Dhana Nanda from the throne of Magadha. Chanakya had been to Pataliputra
to seek the help of Dhana Nand in turning the Greeks out of the country
but, instead, was humiliated by the king. Hence, he had taken a vow to
depose Dhana Nand. He marked out Chandra Gupta for these twin tasks and
prepared him for the same. It is now generally believed that this
Chanakya and Kautiliya, the author of Arthasastra were the names of same
person.
Probably, Chandra Gupta started his war of
liberation in the Lower IndusValley, before 321 or even before 323 B.C.
and finally succeeded. By 317 B.C., no Greek governor remained in India
and the Punjab and Sindh were occupied by Chandra Gupta. The desire of
the Greek satraps and their soldiers to go back to their own country,
their mutual conflicts, the revolt of the Indian satraps and
assassination of’ Philippus, satrap of upper Indus Valley in 325 B.C.
and the death of Alexander in 323 B.C. facilitated the work of Chandra
Gupta of turning the Greeks out of the Indian territory.
The next task of Chandra Gupta was to conquer Magadha. He failed to
achieve this objective probably once or twice but ultimately besieged
Pataliputra and killed Dhana Nanda. The incompetence of Dhana Nanda, his
unpopularity amongst his subjects, the astute diplomacy of Chanakya and
the bravery and military skill of Chandra Gupta were mainly responsible
for the downfall of the Nanda dynasty. Chandra Gupta also kept
Pataliputra as his capital.
Extension of the Empire
War with Seleucus
When Chandra Gupta was busy in the extension and consolidation of his
empire, Seleucus, one of the ablest generals of Alexander who had
obtained possession of the Eastern empire of his master, proceeded
towards India to recover the lost possession of the late emperor. He
reached India about 305 B.C. where Chandra Gupta faced him in a battle.
The Greek writers do not give the details of the conflict. It is also
not certain whether a decisive battle took place between the two or not.
Peace Settlement
But, in view of the terms of peace
between the two, it is definite that Seleucus failed miserably in his
expedition. He had not only to abandon the idea of reconquering the
Punjab but to surrender to Chandra Gupta a part of his territories in
the East with its capital cities Herat, Kandahar and Kabul and also the
territories of Baluchistan. In return, Chandra Gupta gave him 500 war
elephants. Seleucus appointed Megasthenes as his ambassador in the court
of Chandra Gupta and always maintained friendly relations with him
afterwards. Both of them entered into a matrimonial alliance also and it
is generally held that Chandra Gupta married a daughter of Seleucus
though it is not warranted by known facts. Thus, this settlement between
the two extended the territories of Chandra Gupta in the North- West up
to the borders of Persia and also secured his frontiers in that
direction.
No written record is available of other conquests of
Chandra Gupta, yet it is certain that he ruled over a vast empire.
Bindusara, his successor is not known to history as a conqueror while
Asoka conquered only Kalinga.
Last days of Chandra Gupta Maurya
According to Jaina traditions, Chandra Gupta renounced the world in his
last days and went to the South with the Jaina monk Bhadrabahu. The
hill where he lived in his last days of life is known as Chandragiri
where a temple known as Chandra Gupta Basti was also erected by him. It
is in Mysore. He fasted unto death at this place.
Bindusara (300 – 273 B.C.)
After the death of Chandra Gupta, his son, Bindusara, succeeded the
throne in 299 B.C. Vayu Puran describes his name ‘Bhadrasar’. According
to Greek writers, he had taken the ‘Amitra ghad’ or ‘slayer of
enemies’. But we do not have details of his conquests. However, a
vague hint is given by the author of Arya Manju-Sri Mula-Kalpa’ and by
Hem Chandra and Taranath who wrote, “that the apostle of violence,
Chanakya outlived Chandra Gupta and continued as Minister of Bindusara
as one of his great lords.”
Conquests
Like his
father Bindusara also followed an imperialistic policy. According to
Buddhist and Jain traditions Chanakya outlived Chandra Gupta and in the
early days of Bindusara, he helped him. According to Tibetan historian,
Taranath, Chanakya helped Bindusara in destruction of the kings and
ministers of sixteen towns and made Bindusara the master of all
territory between the eastern and western sea. On the basis of this
account some writers hold the view that Bindusara had also made certain
conquests in the south. But this view has been repudiated by other
scholars who state that India was subdued and conquered by Chandra Gupta
and that Bindusara had not added any new area to his empire. Probaby he
had suppressed a few rebellions, which had taken place in his empire.
Revolt of Uttrapath
Susima, the eldest son of Bindusara, ruled in Uttrapath as a provincial
governor. Being dissatisfied with the Maurya ministers, the people of
Taxila rose in revolt. Susima failed to suppress this revolt. Then
Bindusara sent his other son, Prince Ashoka to quell the revolt.
According to Divyavadana, when Ashoka reached Taxila, all the people of
Taxila came out and said “We neither oppose the prince, nor the king
Bindusara but the wicked ministers who oppress us.” Ashoka adopted a
very co-operative attitude with the people and was successful in
suppressing the revolt. Divyavadan describes another revolt also which
was quelled by Susima.
Foreign Policy
Besides
keeping the empire of his father intact, Bindusara has maintained good
and friendly relations with foreign countries. Bindusara followed the
same policy which had been started by Chandra Gupta. Daimachus was sent
by Antiochus, the son of Selukus as an the ambassador in the Court of
Bindusara. According to Pliny king Ptolemy of Egypt had also sent his
ambassador, Dionyaisys, as an ambassador to India. Once Bindusara wrote
to Antiochus ‘send me sweet wine, dry figs and a sophist (Philosopher).
Antiochus replied “I here by send you sweet wine and dry figs,
but a sophist is not sold in Greece.” On the basis of these references
it can be said that India had commercial contacts with countries abroad.
Death and Estimate
According to the Puranas, Bindusara ruled for 25 years. Thus according
to Puranas, he died in 273 B. C. But according to Buddhist tradition he
ruled for 27 or 28 years. The reign of Bindusara has no special
significance in the history of India. This does not, however, mean that
he was not an able ruler.
Asoka had got it written that the
propagation of Dharma was done by his predecessor king. Probably his
indication was towards Bindusara. Bindusara was a powerful and a
benevolent ruler.
Ashoka the Great (273 – 236 B.C.)
Asoka succeeded his father Bindusara. He has been regarded as
a great emperor. H.G. Wells described him as “the greatest of kings.”
And, his greatness lay not in the extent or vastness of his empire but
primarily in his character, and the principles and ideals for which he-
strove as a ruler. Asoka has occupied a place not only amongst the great
rulers of India but among those of the world. H.G. Wells writes, “It is
not every age, it is not every nation, that can produce a king like
this type. Asoka still remains without a parallel in the history of the
world.”
Early Life of Ashoka
Ashoka was the son
of Bindusara and the grandson of Chandra Gupta Maurya. There is some
controversy regarding the mother of Ashoka. According to
‘Mahabodhivamsa’, her name was Dhamma. But according to
‘Ashokavadanmala’ the name of his mother was Subhandrangi. ‘Divyavandan’
also mentions this name at that of his mother. Some scholars are of
the opinion that Ashoka was the son of Greek princess, the daughter of
Selukus, who became the wife of Bindusara. But there is no evidence
available to justify this. Hence the correct name appears to be
Subhandrangi, as mentioned in ‘Ashokavadanmala’ and ‘Divyavadan’.
During his childhood, Ashoka was a naughty boy. Due to his ugliness he
could not become the favourite of public. Bindusara made fine
arrangements for the education of Ashoka. The most promising of his
sons, Ashoka had the traits of ruling even from his childhood. Due to
his sharp intelligence and talents, he soon became adept in sports, use
of arms and academics. Due to his ability and efficiency Bindusara
appointed him the governor of Taxila and Ujjain. He showed his
administrative skill and calibre at these places.
War of Succession
According to Ceylonese chronicles there ensued a war of succession
among the sons of Bindusara after his death. These traditions inform us
that with the help of Radha Gupta Aahoka defeated his brother Susima and
ascended the throne after killing his ninety nine brothers. According
to ‘Mahavamsa’ and ‘Dipavamsa’, Ashoka killed his ninety nine brothers
to get the throne of Magadha. ‘Divyavardan’ also describes in detail
the war of Ashoka and Susima. According to Tibetan historian Taranath,
Ashoka had ascended the throne after having killed his six brothers.
However, certain modern historians are of the view that there had taken
place a war of succession. The death of Bindusara took place in 273
B.C. Whereas the coronation of Ashoka took place in 269 B.C. This delay
of four years shows that a war of succession might have taken place.
Coronation of Ashoka
After having achieved victory in the war of succession. Ashoka was
coronated as the king. We are faced with a great deal of difficulties in
fixing the date of his coronation. Ashoka’s Rock Edict and Pillar
inscriptions are silent on this point. In his thirteenth inscription
Ashoka’s mentions five Greek contemporary kings-Antiyoka (Seria 261-246
B. C.) Turamaya (Egypt, upto 247 B.C.), Kairina Kamar (300-250 B.C.)
Alika Sundara (Apiran, 272-258 B.C.), Autkina (Makdonia 278—339 B.C.).
We find that all these rulers were thus before 258 B. C. The ruler of
Apiran died in 258 B. C. but it finds mention in Ashoka’s inscription.
Ashoka’s coronation must have taken place in 270-269 B.C.
Conquest of Kalinga
The most significant incident of the reign of Ashoka is the conquest of
Kalinga. Up to the thirteenth year of his reign Ashoka followed the
traditional imperialist policy of his predecessors. The vast empire
inherited by him of his predecessors extended to Hindukush in West, to
Bay of Bengal in the East, Himalyas, Kashmir and Nepal in the North and
to Mysore in the South. Kalinga had remained unconquered by Chandra
Gupta and was a powerful kingdom in the time of Ashoka. It lied between
the river Mahanadi and Godavari. The growing power of Kalinga was a
source of danger to Magagha and hence Ashoka decided to conquer it.
Battle of Kalinga
Taking a big army Ashoka attacked Kalinga about 262-261 B.C. The people
of Kalinga resisted with all their might to defend their freedom. A
great bloodshed was caused, Rock Edict XIII of Ashoka deseribes the
battle of Kalinga. It says,
“Kalinga was conquered by
His Sacred and Gracus Majesty when he had been consecrated eight years.
1,50,000 persons were then carried away captive 1,00,000 persons were
then slain and many times that number died. Directly after the
annexation, of the Kalinga began. His sacred Majesty’s zealous
protection of the Law of Piety, his love of law and his inculcation of
law (Dharma). Thus arose his sacred Majesty’s remorse for having
conquered the Kalingas, because the conquest of a county previously
unconquered involves the slaughter, death and carrying away captive of
the people. That is a matter of profound sorrow and regret to his
Majesty.”
Effect and the Significance of the Battle of Kalinga
The large scale slautghter and bloodshed caused in the battle changed
the mind and heart of Ashoka. His heart was filled with remorse and
regret. This is obvious from his Rock Edict XIII, which says, “So that,
of all the people who were slain, done to death or carried away captive
in Kalinga. It would be a matter of regret to his Sacred Majesty.
Thus we see that the end of Kalinga war is marked with the beginning of
a new epoch. Henceforward Ashoka made upon his mind not to resort to
force for conquests of territories. Insted he decided to make the
conquests through the propagation of Dharma.
Dr. Ray
Chaudhri observes, “The conquest of Kalinga was a great landmark in the
history of Magadha, and of India. It marks the close of that career of
conquest and agrandisement which was ushered in by Bimbisara’s
annexation of Anga. The era of military conquest or Digvijaya was over,
the era of spiritual conquest or Dhamma-Vijay was about to begin.”
Indian culture and civilization reached distant foreign countries. It
has been rightly remarked by a scholar that “The Kalinga war was one of
the decisive events of the history of the world.”
Ashoka and Buddhism
Though Ashoka’s personal religion was Buddhism yet he was free from
sectarianism arid religious narrowmindedness. He never tried to forcibly
convert others to his religion. His inscription nowhere mention the
four noble truths, eight old noble paths and Nirvana. In fact the
religion he preached was a code of morals and contain, the essence of
all the religions.
Ashoka adopted many measures for
the spread of Budhhism. It was on account of Ashoka that Buddhism became
one of the main religions of the World. In the words of W. W. Hunter,
“Buddhism has created a literature and religion for nearly half of the
human race and has affected the beliefs of the other half.”
Following measures were adopted by Ashoka for the spread of Buddhism:
(1) Making of Buddhism as the State religion—Ashoka adopted Buddhism as
the State religion. Due to his royal support and patronage this
religion rapidly progressed and became popular.
(2) Determination
of Dharma Vijaya—Rock Edict XIII shows that after the Kalinga war
Ashoka decided not resort to violence and force the conquest of
territories and made up his mind to start Dharma Vijaya.
(3)
Religious Exhibition - To win the good will of the people he arranged
the exhibitions of different order of Gods, their Vimans (heavenly
palaces), Hastins or celestial elephants and Agni Skandha on occasion of
Samajas. These exhibitions helped to make people religious-minded, this
is evident from Rock Edict IV.
(4) Religious
Discussions - We know from the 7th pillar inscriptions that, from time
to time, Ashoka organised and arranged for religious discussions. Ashoka
issued orders to high officials of the State such as Rajuka, Pradesha
Vyushta etc. to help these religious discussions.
(5)
Appointment of Dharma Mahamatras -Ashoka established a separate
department for the propagation of religion. For the propagation of
religion, he appointed Dharma Mahamatras. In Rock Edict XlII, he says,
“I have appointed Dharma Mahamatras for all the religious sects. They
will look after all the religion and religious places.” As these Dharma
Mahamatras mostly belonged to Buddhism, they propagated Buddhism.
The duty of the Mahamatras was to make extensive tours and to preach
the religion. Hence Buddhism became very popular among the common mass.
(6) Construction and the help of Monastries - Ashoka constructed
Buddhist monasteries at different places in the length and width of his
empire. Large number of Buddhist monks lived and preached the religion
in these monasteries. These monasteries became an important and
effective means for the propagation of Buddhism.
(7)
Charitable Instituions - Ashoka opened many charitable institutions for
the purpose of helping the poor, the suffering ones and the monks.
These institutions besides serving the people, preached the religion.
(8) Arrangement of Dharma Yatras—Ashoka abandoned Vihara Yatras or
tours of pleasure and went on Dharma Yatras. Ashoka made pilgrimages to
places connected with the life of Buddha such as Lumbini, Kapilvastu,
Sarnath and Kusinagar. These pilgrimages attracted the attention of
people and Buddhism received a wide publicity through these pilgrimages.
(9) Prohibition of slanghter and killing of animals - By ordering the
prohibition of slaughter and killing of animals he not only showed mercy
upon all sects of creatures but also propagated the principle of Ahimsa
which is a cardinal principle of Buddhism.
Ashoka’s inscriptions
Ashoka’s inscriptions occupy a prominent place in the history of
ancient India. The inscriptions provide us with sufficient – reliable
knowledge about the region of Ashoka.
Broadly speaking these inscriptions can be divided into three- categories. They are:
(a) Rock Edict.
(b) Pillar Edicts.
(c) Cave inscriptions.
Minor Rock Edicts —These Rock Edicts belong to 253 or 257 B. C.
Fourteen Rock Edicts—These have been found at the following places; (1)
Shabhazgarhi (Peshawar District), (2) Mansera (Hazara District), (3)
Kalsi (Dehradun), (4) Girnar (near Junagarh), (5) Sopara (Thana
District), (6) Dhauli (Puri District), (7) Jangarh (Ganjam District),
(8) Ira Gurhi -(Karnal District).
These Rock Edicts
belong to 257 or 256 B. C. These throw a flood a light on the ethical
and political policies of Ashoka. Rock Edicts XIII is most important and
lengthy of all these Edicts. It gives a vivid description of the
Kalinga war and the change of mind which Ashoka under went subsequent to
this war. It is also most important from the historical point of view.
Pillar Edicts
The Pillar Edicts may be further classified into three categories: (1)
Seven Pillar Edicts, (2) Two commemorative Pillar Inscriptions, and (3)
four minor Pillar Edicts
Cave Inscriptions
The cave inscriptions are three in number and have been found in the
Barabar hills. These describe Ashoka’s policy of toleration and
charity. These inscriptions belong from 257 to 250 B.C.
His Administrative Reform
Asoka’s conversion had its effects both upon internal and external
policies of the government. In the fourth Rock Edict and the Kalinga
Edict Asoka expressed his unhappiness about several matters in which
maladministration in the provinces was a major one to remove the
maladministration. Asoka adopted some measures of administrative
reforms.
He instituted two kinds of circuits
(anusamyana), quinquennial and triennial of state officials like Yutas,
Rajukas Pradesikas and Mahamatras. The Yutus, Rajukas and the
Pradesikas had tour of the different parts of the country every five
years. According to H. C. Raichaudhuri their circuit or tour was mainly
for propaganda work. But they had also to look after, supervise and
check the work of administration in different parts of the country. The
circuit (Anusamyama) of the Mahamatras was triennial and specially
instituted for the purpose of checking miscarriage of justice, arbitrary
imprisonment and torture in the outlying provinces like Kalinga,
Ujjaini and Taxila.
Asoka also created a number of new
posts such as Dhamma Mahamattas and Dhamma-Yutas. The Dhamma-Mahamatras
were given the protective mission among the people of all sects, the
Brahmanas, .Jainas, Yavanas, Kambojas, Gandharas, Rastikas and all
Aparantas. They were also appointed among the servants, masters,
wealthy, the helpless, and the aged for freeing them from the worldly
cares and propagation of the Law of Piety.
They were
also employed to grant remission of penalties or execution on the merits
of the case. They were also to consider the motive behind the crime and
if they found sufficient grounds might even release the convicted
person. If the person was of advanced age, or committed the crime on
instigation or had dependent children they might as well be released by
such officers.
Dhamma-Mahamtras were further engaged
everywhere in the imperial dominions “or indeed in the whole world
(Prithivi) as known to the Mauryas, among the Dhamma-Yutas with regard
to the concerns of the Law, the establishment of the Law and the
business of alms giving”. This shows that Asoka appointed a new class of
officers called Dhamma-Yutas for looking after the Law of Piety and
alms giving. The border countries were placed under the special care of
the Avutikas, a new class of officials.
From the Kalinga
Edicts and the Sixth Rock Edict it is clearly understood how Asoka
himself kept an watchful eye on the Mahamatras, especially on those who
were entrusted with the administration of justice in cities.
He granted much freedom to the Rajukas in their function of awarding
honours or penalties so that they might perform their duty with fullest
freedom and without any fear. The Rajukas were placed over many hundred
thousands of people. Grant of this freedom of action was made only to
the Rajukas who obviously enjoyed much respect and confidence of Asoka.
Asoka also issued regulations legally restricting the slaughter or
mutilation of animals on certain occasions.
Works of Public
Welfare – After the war of Kalinga, he became more interested in the
service of the people. In order to serve the people of his empire, much
work of public welfare was performed by Ashoka. He constructed many
roads, rest houses, and hospitals (both for men and beasts). Many shady
trees were planted and the wells were dug on both sides of the road.
As a result of the works of public welfare and other reforms, a great
change was introduced in the system of administration. Ashoka’s
administration was proved to be praiseworthy. The whole administration
was based on the ideas of ethics and religions. It was due to his
administrative reforms, that Ashoka could be able to make Mauryan Empire
stable and significant in the history of India.
Successors of Ashoka
The Maurya empire proceeded towards its fall after the death
of Ashoka. Seven kings, viz., Kunal, Dasarath, Samprati, Salisuk,
Devaverma, Satadhanva and Brihadratha followed Ashoka in succession
during a period of fifty years. The last ruler of this dynasty,
Brihadratha was killed by his commander-in-chief Pushyamitra Sunga who
laid the foundation of a new dynasty, the Sunga Dynasty.
2.2 Mauryan Administration
The basic principles of administration of the Mauryas remained the same
as established by Chandra Gupta till subsequently, the weaker Mauryas
lost their hold over it. Primarily, Kautiliya’s Arthasastra and the
description of Megasthenes give us a fair idea of the administration of
Chandra Gupta.
The Polity. By the time of the Mauryas, the
office of the king had become hereditary and the divine origin of
monarchy had attained maturity and had given the king wide powers. But,
strictly speaking, as Hindu political theory vests sovereignty in the
Dharma or law in the widest sense of the term and the state is separated
from the king who is a part of it, no king could be tyrannical or a
wielder of absolute personal powers.
The king.
Sometimes, the king could be elected but hereditary kingship was the
established practice. The females were the right of kingship but, in
practice, it was rarely to be found. The king was the supreme head of
the State and performed military, judicial, executive and legislative
functions. His permanent duty was to protect the people and seek their
welfare. Arthasastra states, “In the happiness of his subjects lies his
happiness; in their welfare his welfare; whatever pleases himself he
shall not consider as good, but whatever pleases his subjects he will
consider as good.” Therefore, the king was the most busy person in the
kingdom.
The king was paid taxes by his subjects in return
for his services to the kingdom. He lived in a large and comfortable
palace which was highly praised by Megasthenes. He was protected by
lady-bodyguards and every precaution was taken to protect his life from
treachery and poisoning.
The Council of Ministers and the ‘State
Council. According Kautiliya there were two Committees to assist the
king in administration. He says, “Sovereignty is possible only with
assistance.” It implied that these committees were not only necessary
but effective in administration as well. The council of Ministers was a
small body consisting of 3-12 members. Each of them was the head of one
or a few administrative departments and sometimes, one of them could be
appointed as chief or Prime Minister. All of them were appointed by the
king on merit and could also be dismissed by him. The State Council
was a large body and the number of its members could be 12, 16 or 20 and
according to Kautiliya it could include as many members as the need of
the State required. These councils played an effective role in the
administration of the kingdom. Kautilya has clearly distinguished the
two and has given re-eminence to the Council of Ministers as compared to
the State Council. Of course, the king had the legal power to refuse to
work on their advice but, in practice, he hardly did so.
The
Bureaucracy at the Centre. The Mauryan administration was carried on by
an organised, efficient and highly centralised bureaucracy. Besides the
ministers who were the heads of various departments, the Sannidhata
(Head of Treasury), the Samaharta (Collector General of Revenue), the
Purohita (Chief priest), the Senapati (Commander of the army), the
Pratihara (Gate-keeper or the protector of the king’s palace and person)
the Antarvamisika (Leader of the haremguards) Durgapala (Governor of
the fort), the Antapala (Governor of the frontier), the Nyayadish (Chief
Justice) and Prasasta (Head of the Police) were other important
officials. There were other numerous officers who worked in other
various departments such as Audit and Accounts, Treasury, Records Mines,
Mint, Commerce Excise, Agriculture, Toll etc. These officers were
called Tirthas, Amatya etc. The efficiency of the Maurya administration
depended on the loyalty and capability of its bureaucracy.
The
Provincial Administration The Maurya empire was divided into a number of
provinces. The provinces were of two categories, viz. One, which were
ruled over by subordinate rulers and, the other, which were created
after dividing the territories under the direct rule of the Mauryas.
During the reign of Asoka such provinces were four in number, viz.
Uttrapath, Avanti-Rashtra, KaIinga and Dakhsinapath having Taxila,
Ujjayani, Tosli and Swaranagiri respectively as their capitals. The
fifth part of the empire was called Prashi which was ruled by the
emperor himself from the capital, Patliputra. In each of these province
there was a Governor or Viceroy who was sometimes a prince of royal
blood. The princes, when appointed as Viceroys, were called
Kumara-Mahamatras while the rest of the Viceroys were simply designated
as Mahamatras.
The provinces were divided into districts under
Sthaniks who were helped by another class of officers called Gopas. The
village was the smallest unit of administration where an officer known
as Gramika, either elected by the local people or by the government
looked after the administration of the village with the help of a
village-assembly. The village assembly managed cleanliness, construction
of bridges and roads, justice and other things concerning the village.
The
Administration of City. City administration was looked after in its
minutest detail. Every city was divided into wards and further into
groups of households under Sthaniks and Gopas respectively, which the
entire city was under a city-superintendent assisted by a municipal
corporation.
Espionage The Mauyas had developed an efficient
system of espionage. Spies were kept not only by the emperor but also by
all important officials of the State. Female spies were also quite
popular. ‘Spies were deputed to foreign countries also, Kautiliya and
Chandra Gupta had given great importance to this system in
administration. The emperor was kept informed about all relevant affairs
of the State also about the affairs of foreign states.
Judicial Administration. Both Megasthenese and
Kautiliya describe that the penal code was severe. Even for ordinary
offences, fines were imposed and for severe crimes there was provision
of either penalty of death or cutting off the limbs of the body.
However, crimes were few. The courts were of two types: Central and
local. At the centre, the king held his own court and provided justice.
Besides, there was the court of the Chief Justice who provided justice
with the help of four or five other judges.
Finance. The
primary source of income for the State was land revenue. The royal
share of the produce of the soil called the Bhaga generally amounted to
1/6th, but it differed also and ranged from 1/4th to l/8th. It was based
on the land used by each individual cultivator, not on the village as a
whole, and also in accordance with the quality of the land.
Besides, there were various other sources of income
of the State. It taxed the shepherds and the livestock breeders on the
number and produce of the animals. The state charged toll-tax and
trade-tax on sold. Then there was forest-tax, tax on intoxicants,
mine-tax, fish-tax, irrigation tax, licence tax etc. The state owned
vast forests. It had a monopoly of mines and traded in mineral products.
The
king’s household, the army, salaries of officials and members of the
bureaucracy and expenditure on public works were the main items of the
expenditure of the state. The employees of the state were paid salaries
in cash.
Roads and Irrigation. Large irrigation projects and
construction and maintenance of public highways were the
responsibilities of the state. Megasthenese has described the main
highway which ran from the North-West upto Pataliputra and beyond
towards the East. It was 1150 miles long and quite wide. Trees were
planted on its both sides. Milestones and direction-posts were erected
on it and arrangements were made for its proper maintenance.
Maurya
rulers constructed large numbers of canals and set up other irrigation
projects and their example was emulated by their provincial governors.
One of Chandra Gupta’s governors was responsible for building a dam
across a river near Girnar in western India, resulting in a large lake
of supply water for the region. The state, however, charged irrigation
tax which ranged from 1/5 to 1/3 of the produce.
Public Health,
Sanitation and Census. Proper care was taken by the State of public
health. Elaborate rules were framed for sanitation purposes which were
strictly enforced. There were hospitals not only for human beings but
also for birds and animals. There was a separate department for public
census and it kept records of birth and deaths at every place.
(xv) Military Administration. The Mauryas kept a large and powerful
standing army. Chandra Gupta had laid its foundation and there is no
evidence to prove that even Asoka who gave up wars of conquest after the
war with Kalinga, reduced the number and strength of the army. The
Mauryas kept a navy also but the force consisted mainly of infantry,
cavalry, war-elephants and chariots. Pliny, who’ based his statement on
Megasthenese, put the strength of Chandra Gupta’s forces at 6,00,000 of
infantry, 30,000 of cavalry and 9,000 elephants. He did not mention the
number of chariots but Plutarch placed their number at 8,000. The
administration of the army was looked after by a Council of 30 members
which was divided into six committees of the five members each to look
after the six departments of the army which were as follows:
1. Admiralty (Navy);
2. Transport;
3. Infantry;
4. Cavalry;
5 War-Chariots; and
6. War-Elephants.
The success of Chandra Gupta against Seleucus and the conquest of
Kalinga by Asoka are sufficient proofs of the strength of the Maurya
army.
Estimate
The administration of the Mauryas which
kept their vast empire intact, strong and flourishing from the time of
Chandra Gupta till Asoka, has been regarded as one of the best ever
established by Indian rules. No Indian ruler could achieve such a grand
success.
But, more than that, the Maurya administration was
remarkable because of its wide definition of the obligations of the
state. The duty of the Maurya state was not simply to maintain peace
within its borders and to defend its frontiers but it was obliged to
look after the material, moral and spiritual progress of its citizens.
