World History Notes (Bhavesh Mishra AIR-58/CSE-2014)

Discuss the events that led to UN formation.

In 1941 Britain and US declared that they would not seek any territory. The declaration supported the right of every people to have the form of government of their choice.
1942: UN Declaration. It stated that Chinese territory acquired by Japan would be restored to her.
In 1943 Churchill, Roosevelt and Stalin met at Tehran and declared their resolve to "banish the scourge and terror of war"
Yalta Conference (Soviet Union) : Defeat of Germany was in sight. Securing of Germany surrender was declared the aim. Here they agreed on number of issues as to how to deal with Germany and non-German territories post war. It also decided to set up a new organisation to replace LoN.
San Francisco 1945 : It was attended by 50 nations. The conference adopted the UN Charter under which a new organisation was set up. This was UN based on the principle of "sovereign equality of peace loving states". Objective was to maintain international peace and security, develop friendly relations among nations and to achieve international cooperation in solving international problems of economic, social, cultural or humanitarian character.
Potsdam Conference : Major conference of Britain (Churchill), US (Truman) and Soviet Union (Stalin) was held at Potsdam (Berlin). The future of Germany was decided. Germany was partitioned into 4 zones each under the control of Britain, France, US and USSR. Aim was to bring complete disarmament of Germany, destroy Nazi party and prepare for a democratic Germany. Set up international tribunal to trial persons who had committed crimes against humanity. Thus Nuremberg trial took place. Transfer of northern part of East Prussia to Soviet Union and southern part to Poland.
UN came into existence in October 1945. It succeeded League of Nations.

What are the aims of UN ?

Preserve peace and eliminate war.
Remove the causes of conflict by encouraging economic, social, educational development
Safeguard the rights of all individual human beings and rights of nations.

Discuss the working of UN

General Assembly

Meeting together of all countries. One vote per nation. Upto 5 members per country.
Meets once a year starting in September. Special sessions during time of crisis.
Decisions on functioning of UN. Select member states of Security Council.
Decision through simple majority
English, French, Chinese, Spanish and Arabic

Security Council

It sits in permanent session. It has 5 permanent members. There are 10 non permanent members who are elected for 2 year term.
Decisions require atleast 9 votes (it must include 5 permanent members)
USSR has used most number of times.
There has always been debate over which should take precdence : Veto or General Assembly decisions.

Secretariat

Office staff of UN. It is headed by Secretary General.
He is elected for a 5 year term and is generally not from a major country. He is the main spokesperson of the UN and tries to sort out the world problem.

International Court of Justice

It has 15 judges. Elected for 9 year term.
Its decisions on several issues have not been enforced by Security Council.

Trusteeship Council (No longer needed)

It had its mandate of ensuring that countries being taken away from Germany and Turkey get independence.
Most of the countries did get independence. Only Namibia remained a problem. The problem was sorted out when intense international pressure was built on South Africa

ECOSOC

It is the economic and social council. It has 27 members. It organises projects concerned with health, education and other social and economic matters.
It coordinates its activities with wide array of organisations including ILO, WHO, UNESCO, UNICEF, FAO etc

Assess the performance of UN?

Criticisms

Lack of a permanent UN army : It has to rely on member states to provide troops. Many a times the warring parties have refused to stop the war. In such situations UN has found itself helpless e.g Russian refual to withdraw troops from Afghanistan (1980)
Indecisions : Sometimes UN has taken too long a time to response to crisis making its intervention meaningless. e.g Vietnam war. This has also led to member states relying more on regional organisations like NATO. This poses a danger of bypassing UN mandate altogether.
Problem of diverse opinions : It has become near impossible except for social issues to arrive at a consensus. It's difficult to renconcile the interests of developing, developed and underdeveloped countries all at once.
Duplication of work : On paper there is much overlapping of work between WHO, FAO, UNICEF and UNESCO. Due to lack of convergence of schemes there is a wastage of resources.
Shortage of funds : Especially in the wake of Global financial meltdown of 2008 and Eurozone crisis. Many developed countries have gone on austerity measures have cut down funding. Wealthy countries want more say in the functioning of UN as they pay more.
It doesn't reflect the 21st century reality e.g Security Council.

Success

It provides a platform where all the countries of the world come together and discuss the issues. Without such a forum there would be various blocks working according to its own agenda which is likely to spawn more crisis and would push the planet towards another world war scenario.
Although it has not prevented wars but is able to bring war to end quickly. UN peace keeping force has done exemplary work in undertaking humanitarian efforts.
Even a small nation consisting of few islands like Kiribati, Nauru can make its voice heard.
It has done commendable work in addressing the human rights, social and gender related issues. Universal Declaration of Human Rights.
Stimulate international cooperation on economic, social and technical matters.

Europe After Second WW

Large number of countries like Poland, Hungary, Romania, Bulgaria and Czechoslovakia became independent. The communist parties played very important role in struggle for independence. Up to the world war Soviet Union was the only country ruled by a communist regime. Now a large number of were ruled by Communist parties. Other political parties were not allowed to exist and this was further helped by the presence of large number of Soviet troops in these countries. Soviet troops were used to suppress movement. Dissent even within party was not allowed. These countries served as the satellite of the Soviet Union. Yugoslavia was the only exception.
In 1948 Britain, France and US decided to merge their territories in Germany. A separate state in West Germany called Federal Republic of Germany with its capital at Bonn came into being. It was a capitalist country. East Germany followed the socialist form of government. It was called German Democratic Republic.
Many important industries such as coal mines and railways were nationalised in Britain. Steps of social security were taken.
In 1946 Monarchy was abolished in Italy and it became a republic.

Soviet Union emerged as the second biggest power after US. Despite suffering massive losses during the war her power and prestige had increased. This was to some extent due to the important role played in defeating Germany.

COLD WAR

What was it ?

It refers to the competition, tensions and series of confrontations between US and Soviet Union backed by their respective allies. It never escalated into 'hot war'. There were wars in various regimes with two powers and their allies involved in warfare and supporting regional allies e.g Vietnam, Suez Crisis, Korean War. but another global war was avoided.

It was also about ideological conflict. Difference over the best and the most appropriate way of organising political, economic and social life all over the world. The western alliance represented liberal democracy and capitalism whereas Soviet Union was committed to the ideology of socialism and communism.

The cold war was rooted in the understanding that the use of atom bomb is too costly for any country to bear. Despite provocations neither side wanted to take risk as no political gain would have justified the destruction of entire society. In the event of nuclear war the damages would be so severe that it would be difficult to declare one side or the other as the winner.

The most important reason for the outbreak of the Cold War was the Western Countries fear of Communism.

1949 : Victory of communist in China sent shockwaves in the world. Now there were two mighty powers Soviet Union and China which were communist. Soon many independent countries adopted communist ideology and became an ally of Soviet Union. This caused much fear in the minds of USA. US openly declared that its policy was to prevent the spread of communism. It began to look every development in the world from this angle. Arbitrary restrictions of imposed on people, their rights curtailed. US supported France in suppressing the freedom movement in Indo-China. Countries which wanted to pursue independent foreign relations and maintain good ties with Soviet Union were looked upon with suspicion.

Discuss the formation of various power blocks during this period

NATO was set up in 1949.
SEATO (South East Asia Treaty Org) was set up in 1954. Its members were US, Britain, France, Australia, New Zealand, Thailand, Philippines and Pakistan.
In 1955 Baghdad pact was brought into being. It consisted of Britain, Turkey, Iraq, Pakistan and Iran. US established its military bases all over. The name of Baghdad Pact was changed to CENTO (Central Treaty Organisation).
These alliances were very unpopular in some countries. In 1958 there was a revolution and Iraq withdrew itself from Baghdad Pact.
Soviet Union had Warsaw Pact. Unlike US it did not station its troops all over the world.

The formation of alliances was accompanied with arms race. Weapons of mass destruction were being produced on massive scale. In 1949 Soviet Union tested its first atom bomb. Themonuclear hydrogen bombs, thousand times more dangerous than atom bomb wrere being produced. These resources, if they had been utilized for peaceful purposes, would have gone a long way in abolishing want and poverty.

The policy of non-alignment played a very important role in diffusing the tensions of cold war.

Smaller independent states were made allies and were promised protection, weapons, economic aid. Sphere of influence.

Smaller states were helpful for superpowers to gain access to:

Vital resources such as oil and minerals.
Territory form where superpowers could launch their weapons and troops.
Locations from where they could spy on each other.
Economic support, in that many small allies together could help pay for military expenses.
Loyalties of states suggested that superpowers were winning the war of ideas.

Huge stocks of arms were piled. However the logic of 'deterrrence' gained importance. Both sides had the capacity to retaliate. However, the deterrence relationships prevents war but not the rivalry between powers.

Discuss various crisis that threatened escalation of full blown war during this period.

Cuban Missile Crisis

In April 1961 USSR was worried that USA would invade the communist Cuba and overthrow Fiedel Castro. Cuba was an ally of USSR and received diplomatic and military aid. Soviet Union under Nikita Khrushchev decided to convert Cuba into a Russian base. In 1962 he placed nuclear installations in Cuba. US under John F Kennedy was reluctant to take action as it might have led to full scale nuclear war. USA ordered American warships to intercept any Soviet ships heading to Cuba. A clash was imminent and made the whole world nervous.

Discuss the steps taken to ease the tension during Cold War.

Non Aligned countries played a role in reducing Cold War conflicts and averting grave crisis. Nehru played a crucial role in mediating between the two Koreans. In the Congo crisis the UN Secretary General played a key mediatory role. The logic of restraint was increasingly evident.

Signing of Arms Treaty

Limited Test Ban Treaty
NPT
Anti Ballistic Missile Treaty
SALT : Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty
START : Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty

Several rounds of arms limitation talks took place.

KOREA

Korea had come under Japanese rule in 1910. After the defeat of Japan, Korea was divided along 38th parallel. Northern part was controlled by Soviet Union and southern under American occupation. The initial motive was to pull out the Japanese forces providing stability and then arrange elections in Korea. Two different govt were formed in 1948. Democratic People's Republic of Korea (DPRK) in north and Republic of Korea (RPK) in south under the leadership of Syngman Rhee. He was an anti communist. South Korea had a larger population and followed capitalism. This caused fear in USSR and it provoked Kim Il Jung who attacked S. Korea in 1950.

In 1948 Soviet troops withdrew and in 1949 American troops. Both sides favoured unification.
In June 1950 war broke out. US feared expansion of communism and sent troops. Security Council passed a resolution condemning North Korea and asked its members to help SK.
There was a real danger of yet another world war. However, armstice was signed in 1953. In 1953 UN intervened and according to UN declarations both the Koreans were to be united by the wish of the people in Plebiscite. It is a challenging task because S.Korea has a responsible government while North Korea is under military dictatorship.
India played a very important role in bringing end to the war.

VIETNAM

Donate and Support Xaam

Phase - 1

The region known as Indo China (Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia) was under French rule. Later it was occupied by Japan. It was the colony of France before WW1.
After the defeat of Japan in WW2 France tried to reenter into Vietnam. This led to the birth of Vietnminh whose important leader was Ho Chinh Minh.
In 1945 Democratic Republic of Vietnam was proclaimed with HCM as president. He gave strong resistance to France during 1946-1954. The war continued for 8 years. French suffered a severe blow at the fortress of Dien Bien Phu.
The French defeat has become famous as people without any sophisticated arms defeated a mighty imperialist country. As a result France left Vietnam in 1954.
In 1954 an International Conference was held at Geneva. It was decided to temporarily divide Vietnam into North and South and hold elections all over Vietnam to unify the country under one government. Cambodia and Laos were declared independent. Vietnam was divided on 17th parallel.
North Vietnam was under Ho Chin Minh who followed communist ideology. South Vietnam was under the control of Ngo Dein Deimh who was a capitalist. North Vietnam came under USSR and South Vietnam under US.

Phase -2

NLF (National Liberation Front) was formed in Vietnam which appealed to world powers that a coalition government between North and South should be established and Vietnamese should work out their own solution or they threatened to resist against any power entering into Vietnam through their Guerilla organisation called Viet Cong.
US was clear that if Vietnam will be left to local leaders it will lead to the establishment of communism in Vietnam. So it decided to intervene in affairs of Vietnam and a clash started. With the support of US the south Vietnam government refused to hold election. Uprising broke in South Vietnam against government.
US mobilised large troops in Vietnam and war continued for many years. The south Vietnamese people under National Liberation Front carried on Guerilla warfare. They had the support of North Vietnam. The American troops used the weapons of bacteriological warfare. Vast areas of Vietnam was devastated and American forces suffered massive casualties.

US Unfair Policy

It was a miscalculated step of US as it failed to take into account the will power of Vietnamese people. 3 American presidents came out with 3 different policies:

J.F.Kennedy came out with 'Safe Village Policy'
Lyndon Johnson opted for military action and America used all legal and illegal weapons against Vietnam including Orange gas.
Richard Nixon adopted the policy of Vietnamisation (natives against natives) which backfired upon America. In complete frustration America went for Mylai (massacre of entire village) in 1968 but it failed to defeat.

End

Worldwide there was a condemnation of US role in Vietnam. There were massive anti war campaign within USA and Americans refused to be drafted in US army.
So in 1972 America accepted the truce with Vietnam and in 1973 Vietnam became independent.
In 1975 the combined army of North Vietnam and PLF swept across entire Vietnam routing the American supported troops. US had to withdraw. North and South Vietnam were united in 1976.
It is a historic event. This was the victory of the will power of the most backward nation against the military might of the most powerful nation in the world. A small country had been able to defeat the world's biggest power. It was helped by socialist countries.

IRAN

There was no traditional problem in Iran. There was no economic crisis.
Iranian revolution has a special place in history as it was not the outcome of traditional causes. The revolution was basically against westernisation and dominance of western world in Iran. For example, US and Israeli diplomats were given immunity in Iran.
The revolution was based on the concept of Vilayat - i - Fikah i.e the nation should be under the guardianship of the clerics of the nation e.g Ayatullah Khoemeini. The religious head acted as guiding force of the revolution.
It was yet another defeat of capitalism in Asia.

ARAB TROUBLE

Palestine was considered as the heart of Central and West Asia. It not only had its way to the oil reserves but had great geopolitical importance as access to Russia was easier.

Timeline

1897: World Zionist Organisation by Theodre Herzl. It claimed that Palestine was the homeland of Jews
1917: Balfour declaration reiterated Palestine was the natural home of Jews.
1919: Palestine became mandate of Britain after the WW-1
1919 - 48: Large influx of Jews took place in Palestine after they faced extermination under the hands of Hitler in Germany. The tragedy won them sympathy and support all over the world. The British allowed the settlement of large number of Jews in Palestine.
The British troops again occupied Palestine in 1945.

Birth of Israel

After the WW-2 Jews outnumbered Arabs in Palestine. David Gurion declared Israel as independent Jews state
In 1947 UN passed a resolution under which Palestine was to be divided into an Arab state and a Jewish state.
After 1948 British troops withdrew from Palestine and soon Israel was proclaimed.
The Arab states refused to recognise Israel.
The creation of Israel has been a source of perpetual tension in the West Asia.

Arab Countries always wanted to eliminate Israel and the period saw a number of wars being fought. Prominent among them were:

1948 War

Arab world united under the leadership of Egypt and its dynamic leader Colonel Nasser and they declared war against Israel. Arabs were defeated by Israel.

Suez Crisis

By treaty of Constantinople in 1889 Suez Canal was considered as part of Egypt. The larger shares of this canal were in the hands of US, Britain, France etc and in return for transport and communication these countries were providing financial aid to Egypt which was used in projects like Aswan Dam.
Due to leadership of Egypt against Israel, Britain ended financial help and in such circumstances Egypt nationalised Suez Canal which led to the Suez crisis of 1956.
Israel captured the Sinai peninsula. The attacks was widely condemned. US refused to support Britain. For the first time USSR and US agreed on something. They demanded an immediate ceasefire. With the pressure building up, Britain, France and Israel decided to withdraw.

Outcome

It was a complete failure for Britain and France and a triumph of Nasser.
The war failed to overthrow Nasser and was a boost for Arab nationalism
It encouraged Algerians for struggle against France

In 1964 Palestine Liberation Organisation (PLO) was formed to fight for the establishment of a Palestine state. It enjoys the status of a member state of NAM.

6 Day War (1967)

Arab states joined hand to destroy Israel. The lead was taken by Iraq, Syria and Egypt. They were encouraged in this effort by Russians (because Israel was supported by Americans). The Israeli decided that the best policy is to launch early attack than wait to be defeated.

They captured

Sinai peninsula and Gaza strip from Egypt
West Bank from Jordan
Golan Heights from Syria

Outcome

Israel turned these areas into buffer zones to counter the attacks of Arab nations.
It was a complete humiliation for Arab states. The Russians had been of no help.

Yom Kippur War (1973)

Meanwhile the million plus Arab population in areas under Israel were having tough time and were constantly engaging in terrorist attacks to draw world attention towards their plight. Some members of Israeli team were murdered at the 1972 Munich olympics.

Egyptians had now acquired modern weapons and their army had been trained by Russian experts !

Yom Kippur is a day of Jewish festival. Egypt and Syria attacked on this day to catch Israeli off guard. Israeli using American weapons easily fended off the attacks.

Outcome

Some peace initiatives were undertaken. Israel agreed to pull back troops from Suez Canal.
OPEC raised the oil prices causing energy crisis in the world.

IRAQ

Iran - Iraq War

Iraq was ruled by Saddam Hussein. Iran had become republic in 1979 under the leadership of Ayatollah Khomeini and Shiite supporters. The population of Iraq was mainly Shunni with large Shia minority. Saddam government was non religious and was afraid that revolutions in Iran might spill over to his country. He was overconfident of his military strength and considered Iranian forces to be weak and therefore launched an attack and expected quick victory.

On paper Iraqi forces were strong but Iranian fought with fanatical determination. Iran got weapons from China and North Korea.

Outcome

Stability of the entire region was threatenened. Saudi Arabia, Jordan and Kuwait gave support to Iraq but Syria, Libya, Algeria were critical of Iraq.
Threatened the energy supplies to the West.
Neither side achieved its objectives and war was ended.

Gulf War

Saddam Hussein launched another offensive against Kuwait (1990)

Motives

Wealth of Kuwait since he was short of cash after the war with Iran.
He claimed that Kuwait was part of Iraq.
He had the strongest army in the region. He did not hope America and European powers to act against him as they had supplied him weapons during the Iran war.

Course of War

Saddam had miscalculated. US pushed for military actions and UN imposed trade sanctions.
Saudi Arabia, Syria and Egypt also got nervous about Iraq's nefarious motives and decided to support international efforts.
Operation Desert Storm was launched against Iraq.
Within 4 days Kuwait was liberated and Baghdad was bombed.
Saddam was allowed to remain in power and was left with considerable arms and troops because West considered his survival to be best for the stability of the region.

Outcome

Iraq was devastated.
Kurds revolted in Iraq but no one interfered this time as Russia, Syria and Turkey had Kurds minority of their own and did not want the revolt to spread.
The primary concern was not with the international justice and moral questions of right and wrong but with their own self interest. They only took actions when they threatened their oil supplies.

ASIA & AFRICA

Factors that enabled freedom movements

The colonial powers were not willing to give up their hold on the colonies and left only when they found that it was not possible to maintain their rule. After the war they again tried to re-establish their rule but were ultimately forced to withdraw.

There was a change in the international climate after the war. Imperialism had been weakened as a whole.
Forces within the imperialism countries were friendly with the people struggling for independence had grown powerful.
Freedom and democracies were major aims with which Allied powers fought the war. This had aroused people all over the world against fascism. The fulfilment of these aims could not be restricted only to Europe.
Emergence of Soviet Union and other socialist countries as a major force. These were inimical to imperialism and gave aid and support to the freedom movement. Similarly the movement of socialism supported freedom movement in these countries.
At the international forums such as UN the independence of these colonies began to get popular support.
Unity and solidarity among different freedom movement was another important factor. Freedom movement in one country supported the freedom movement in other. Role of country which had achieved independence was very crucial. India played important role in supporting the cause of freedom in Asia and Africa. India was among the first countries in the world to recognise Communist China in 1949.
There were movement in Asian and African countries to oust outdated political system, modernise the social and economic systems.

The imperialist resorted to various techniques to maintain their rule viz. create divisions in the freedom struggle, use of force, install puppet government.

Discuss independence of nations in Asia

Burma

It achieved independence in 1948.
In 1944, Anti Fascist People's Freedom League (AFPFL) was formed. It resisted Japanese invasion of Burma.
After the war Britain tried to restore its rule but was forced to agree to demand for freedom.

Indonesia

After the defeat of Japan, Sukarno, pioneer of freedom movement, proclaimed the independence.
British troops landed to help the Dutch to restore their rule.
Sukarno resisted and there were demands in many countries to put an end to the war.
India demanded that Indian Soldiers who were sent to Indonesia as a part of British army should be withdrawn. India convened a Conference of Asian Nations in support of Indonesia's independence. The conference in Delhi in 1949 called for complete independence.
Due to all around pressure, Holland recognised the independence of Indonesia in 1949.

Cambodia

The war in Vietnam also spread to Cambodia.
In 1970 the govt of Prince Narodom Sihanouk was overthrown and a puppet government was installed.
After the withdrawal of US troops a party called Khmer Rouge came to power.

Menace of Khmer Rougue

It was a name given to followers of Communist Party of Kampuchia in Cambodia. It was the ruling party from 1975-1979.
It pepetrated Cambodian genocide - Enforcement of social engineering policies.
Its attempts at agricultural reforms led to famine, starvation and death and millions of Cambodian perished.
It carried out a radical program that included isolating the country from all foreign influences, closing schools, hospitals, and factories, abolishing banking, finance, and currency, outlawing all religions, confiscating all private property and relocating people from urban areas to collective farms where forced labour was widespread. The purpose of this policy was to turn Cambodians into "Old People" through agricultural labour.
It attempted to turn Cambodia into a classless society by depopulating cities and forcing the urban population ("New People") into agricultural communes. The entire population was forced to become farmers in labour camps.
Money was abolished, books were burned, teachers, merchants, and almost the entire intellectual elite of the country were murdered to make the agricultural communism,
All religion was banned by the Khmer Rouge. Any people seen taking part in religious rituals or services would be executed. Several Buddhists, Muslims, and Christians were killed for exercising their beliefs.

Syria

Syria and Lebanon were under French rule. After the war they became independent in 1946.

Other Nations

Sri Lanka (Ceylon) became free in 1948.
Thailand had been occupied by Japan and after the defeat of Japan it became independent.
In 1946 US agreed to the independence of Philippines.
In 1957 Malaya became an independent nation.

Discuss independence of African countries.

Arab League

The period saw the growing power of Arab nationalism which led to efforts by Arab people to come together to face and solve problems. The Arab League was formed comprising all Arab nations.

Egypt

Egypt was a British mandate after WW1. It had been declared independent in 1922 but British troop remained.
After WW2 the demand for withdrawal of British troops gained momentum. There were clashes between the two and Egyptians suffered heavy casualties. There was a discontent against the king who had been installed by the British.
There was a revolution in 1952 when the Egyptian army under the leadership of Lt Colonel Gamal Abdal Nasser overthrew the monarchy and declared Egypt a republic. The British troops ultimately were withdrawn in 1956.
Under Nasser the economic reconstruction of Egypt began. It refused to align with US and began to receive military and economic aid from Soviet Union.
Nasser nationalised Suez Canal in 1956. This prompted a combined attack from Britain, Israel and France. This attack was widely condemned. Soviet Union sent a stern warning to Britain.
The worldwide condemnation forced them to withdraw their forces. The war raised to prestige of Asian and African countries and also that of Soviet Union. It emerged as a saviour and friend of new independent countries

Libya

Libya had come under Italian rule in 1911.
During WW2 some of the most ferocious battle between Germany and Britain were fought in Libya. At the end of the war the country was occupied by Britain and France.
In 1951 Libya became independent with monarchical form of government.
During 1960 it became one of the largest oil producing countries of the world. The king did not permit any opposition to the rule. It led to gross inequality in the society.
In 1969 a group of army officers captured power and abolished monarchy.
US built one of its strongest air bases on Libyan soil.

Algeria

Algeria had been captured by France as early as 1830.
In 1954 the nationalist organisation of the people of Algeria called FLN (National Liberation Front) gave a call for armed struggle against French Rule.
By 1958, the Algerian nationalists had organised a large army of their own and proclaimed the formation of a govt of the republic of Algeria.
The situation in Algeria had serious consequences inside France as well. In 1958, General Charles de Gaulle became the President of France. He conceded the right of the Algerian people to self determination. This policy was opposed by some sections of the French army in Algeria who revolted against De Gaulle and attempts to assassinate him were made.
In July 1962 a referendum was held in Algeria and people unanimously voted for independence.

Ghana

It was under British occupation and was called Gold Coast.
The most prominent leader was Kwame Nkrumah who in 1949 organised the Convention People's Party. A strong trade union movement had also emerged in Gold Coast. They demanded independence but were arrested.
In the elections that followed the CPC won a resounding majority and thus the British were compelled to initiate constitutional reforms and finally British agreed to its independence in 1952.
The country was renamed as Ghana after the name of the old West African kingdom.

Guinea

It was a French colony. In 1958 while embroiled in war in Algeria, France held a referendum in her colonies. The people of Guinea voted for complete independence and Guinea was proclaimed a republic in 1958.

The achievement of independence by Ghana and Guinea accelerated the pace of achievement of independence by other nations. The promotion of the cause of African freedom was a major objective of India's foreign policy. 1960 is regarded as the African year. 17 countries gained their independence. Organisation of African Unity (OAU) was formed in 1963

Kenya

The freedom movement was led by Jomo Kenyatta, leader of Kenya African Union.
In 1952 a revolt by peasants had broken out. This is known as Mau Mau rebellion. It was directed against the seizure of land by the British colonial authorities. Jomo Kenyatta was prisoned in 1953 on the charge of supporting the rebellion.
Having failed to suppress the freedom movement, Britain had to give in and Kenya became independent in 1963.

The newly independent countries had to face lots of problems. The evil machinations of imperialist countries were still at work. e.g. Belgium with the help of some countries brought about the secession of the rich province of Katanga.

By 1975 the Portuguese colonies of Angola, Mozambique, Guinea Bissau and Cape Verde became independent.

Nambia

It was the last country in Africa to become independent. It was formerly called South West Africa. It was a German colony before WW1.
It was handed over to South Africa as 'mandate'. SA treated her as colony and refused to withdraw despite resolutions of UN.
The freedom movement was led by South-West Africa People's Organisation (SWAPO) which was formed in 1960. It started a war with the help of Guerilla forces to liberate the country.
It was made a member of NAM. The NAM + African Govt + UN played an important role in the success of freedom movement in Namibia. The war came to an end in 1989.

South Africa

It was an independent country. It was known as Union of South Afica since 1910 and Republic of South Africa since 1961.
The govt was among the most oppressive regimes in the world in 20th century. It was under the exclusive control of white minorities practicing the worst form of racism. System of apartheid was established.

Features of Apartheid

All people were classified and separated on the basis of race.
Separate schools, universities, theater, shopping centres, separate coaches in trains.
The teams for sport also were formed on the basis of races.
Marriage between different racial groups was a criminal offence.
The best lands in the country were under the control of whites.
The non whites had no vote and say in the govt. They were denied human rights.
Mahatma Gandhi had started the fight against the racial discrimination in South Africa.

Fight Against Government

African National Congress (ANC) was set up in 1910 and led fight against the regime.
In 1960 ANC was banned and most of its leaders were arrested. The ANC organised its own army to fight against the racist regime.

Sanctions Against South Africa

SA was isolated.
Its cricket team was banned by the ICC.
India was the first country in the world to sever relations with SA and extend full support to the people of SA.
In 1980s some Western countries imposed sanctions. By the end of 1980s the international isolation of SA regime was complete.

End of Apartheid

The ban on ANC was subsquently lifted.
Nelson Mandela who had been in jail for 27 years was released.
Apartheid laws were abolished. The process of framing a new constitution was started. It gave right to vote to all people.
Elections were held in 1994 and a new non racist and democratic government came to power. Nelson Mandela was elected the President of the country.

RUSSIA

Discuss the situation in Russia at the turn of 20th century.

Russia at the beginning of 20th century was ruled by Czar, Nicholas II. He was an autocrat and his policies were not popular among masses. Criticism of the government reached climax in 1905 when Russia was defeated by Japan. It lead to massive strike and forced Czar to make concessions (October Manifesto). This included granting of an elected parliament (the Duma). However the Duma was ineffective and did not further the cause of Russian people.

Why did Nicholas survive 1905 Revolution?

This was because:

His opponents were not united.
There was no central leadership. The whole thing started spontaneously
He had been willing to compromise at critical moment.
Most of the army remained loyal.

What were the problems associated with Duma?

The First Duma (1906) was not democratically elected, landowners and middle classes were in majority. Even so, it put forward demands such as: Confiscation of large estates, democratic electoral system, right of the Duma to approve czar's ministers, right to strike and abolition of death penalty.
The demands put forward by First Duma was too radical for Czar and he dispersed it within 10 weeks. The Second Duma (1907) also met the same fate. Nicholas decided to deprive peasants and urban workers of the vote.
The 3rd Duma (1907 - 12) and 4th Duma (1912 - 17) were much more conservative and lasted longer. They had no power at all.

Why 1917 Revolutions were inevitable?

With Nicholas flouting 1905 promises there was bound to be a revolution sooner or later. The major causes leading to the revolution of 1917 were as follows:

Failure of Land Reforms: Serfdom had been abolished in 1861 but it did not improve the conditions of the peasants. They still had miserably small landholdings with no capital to develop. Farming methods were too inefficient and peasant population was growing too rapidly. It was not sufficient enough to support growing population adequately. Land hunger of peasants was a major factor in Russian society.
Industrial Unrest: Late industrialisation. More than half of the capital came from foreign countries. They showed no concern for the condition of workers. Russian capitalist competed with foreigners by reducing the wages. The worker had no political rights. The workers had nothing to lose but their chains - Karl Marx. Later there was a wave of industrial strikes after shooting incident in which hundreds of goldminers had lost their lives.
Government Repression: Secret police employed by government eliminated revolutionaries. Government alienated peasants, industrial workers and intelligentsia.
Revival of revolutionary parties: Bolsheviks (Majority) and Mensheviks (Minority) revived. Both groups had developed from an earlier movement the Social Democratic Labour Party. It was Marxist in outlook. Vladimir Lenin was the dynamic leader. He gave the slogan - "All powers to the Soviets". He described Russia as "prison of nations" where no genuine democracy could be established unless all the non Russian peoples were given equal rights. He proclaimed rights of all people.
1. Bolsheviks wanted a small disciplined party of professional revolutionaries who whould work full time to bring revolution. He laid emphasis on working with peasants and getting them involved in revolutionary activities. In 1912 Bolshevik newspaper Pravda (Truth) played an extremely important role as a means of publicizing Bolshevik ideas.
2. Mensheviks believed that revolution could not take place until the country was industrialised and industrial workers in majority over peasants.
Corruption in Royal Family: Czar Nicholas II still believed in the divine rights of kings. Only nobility and upper layers of clergy supported him. Bureaucracy was top heavy, inflexible and inefficient, the members were solely from privileged classes.The royal family was discredited by large number of scandals and this futher aggrieved the masses.
War Failures: Russian failures in first world war made revolution certain. Bread became very scarce. His tactical blunders led to heavy drain of wealth and death of more than 6,00,000 Russian soldiers. The aristocracy, the Duma, industrialists and army were beginning to turn against Nicholas.

Discuss the February and October Revolutions

Flashpoint

Bread riots broke out in Petrograd (St Petersburg). The czar sent orders for troops to use force, however, some of the troops refused to fire. Mobs seized public buildings, released prisoners from jail. The Duma advisded Nicholas to set up a constitutional monarchy but he refused and in a foolish act sent more troops. Ultimately bowing down to the pressure czar abdicated his throne in favour of his brother but he refused to accept the throne and thus Russian monarchy came to an end !

Provisional Government

A provisional government came to power under Alexander Kerensky who was a moderate socialist. But the government failed miserably as:

It decided to continue the war which proved to be highly unpopular and his decision ended in a disaster.
The government could not rely on army as they supported Petrograd soviet an elected committe of soldiers' and workers' representative.
The government delayed elections and thus lost support.
It did not keep its promise of land reform.
Lenin returned from exile and he asked Bolsheviks to refuse support to the government.
There was severe inflation, rising bread prices, economic chaos, shortages of raw material and fuel.
The army commander in chief took action against Bolsheviks but his troops mutinied. This turned public against the government.

Coup

Finally on 20th October Petrograd Soviet attempted to seize power. Bolshevik red guards occupied all key points and later arrested the provincial government. It was a bloodless coup.
The Bolsheviks knew exactly what they were aiming for, were well disciplined and organised.

The Bolsheviks were however faced with grave challenges as they did not have support in the countryside and were in minority.

Discuss the challenges faced by Bolsheviks

Lack of Majority Support

The question facing Lenin was how to keep themselves in power while allowing free elections? He hoped to win peasants support by nationalising all land.
In the subsequent elections Bolsheviks won 175/700 whereas Social Revolutionaries won 370.
Lenin dispersed Constituent Assembly and did not allow it to meet again. His justification was that since the Bolsheviks knew what the workers wanted, they had no need of an elected parliament to tell them !

War with Germany

The next problem was how to withdraw from war. Lenin signed the humiliating Treaty of Brest-Litovsk under which Russia lost Poland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Ukraine, Georgia and Finland, 1/3rd of Russia's farming land, 1/3rd of population, 2/3rd of coalmines and half her heavy industry.
It was indeed a heavy price to pay. Lenin signed so that he gets time to recover and in the hope that in future the communist ideology would spread to western Europe.

Civil War

The opposition parties were mixed bag consisting of Social Revolutionaries, Mensheviks, ex Czarist officers. Their general aim was to set up a genuine democratic government on Western lines.
In response Bolsheviks launched Red Terror during which thousands of Social Revolutionaries and other opponents were rounded up and shot.
The situation got complicated when USA, Britain, Japan and France sent their troops landing at Murmansk and Vladivostok. However, Red Army under the able leadership of Trotsky was well disciplined and included thousands of officers from czar army. They forced western armies to retreat and thus Bolsheviks were able to survive.

Economic Problem

Lenin had the formidable task of rebuilding the economy.

Political Problems

There was diagreement and criticism inside the communist party. To tackle this he banned 'factionalism' within party, all dissenters were expelled from the party.
About 1/3rd of party members were purged with the help of ruthless secret police (cheka).
He also rejected the claims of trade unions that they should run industry.

Discuss the Importance of Russian Revolution

Victory of communist philosophy and Marxian ideology. It for the first time brought working class into power centre of country. Realisation of the old principle of 'from each according to his capacity, to each according to his work'. It was a Real Revolution unlike FR where after the success of the events the demands of working class got sidelined.
Emergence of USSR (Union of Soviet Socialist Republic) which played an important role in WWII.
Mitigation of discrimination based on race, colour and sex.
Right to work become a constitutional right and it became a duty of the state to provide for employment. Education was given a high priority.
Communist International (Comintern) was formed for promoting revolutions on International Scale. Communist parties were formed in several other countries. Soviet Union became the leader of Communist Movement across the world. Socialist movement got divided into two groups - Socialist and Communist.
State playing the role of planning emerged. Planning Commission in India.
Promoted internationalism. The nations began to accept the idea that their relations with other nations should go beyond the narrow goals of serving self interest.
It hasten the end of imperialism as from very beginning it was against it. Socialists all over the world campaigned for an end to imperialism. Inspiration to all people suffering from imperialism and capitalism. Marx concept of Real Liberation
It redefined democracy and broadened the objective of independence to include social and economic equality. This found reflection in the Constitution of India, Keynesian theory of economics and New Deal of Franklin Roosevelt. In words of JLN - "It made me think of politics much more in terms of social change".
New social and political order and created panic for the capitalist class. Cold War, Fascism etc.

Ideas of socialism and egalitarian society were the primary influence. Abolition of private property, primacy of the state and institutions of party. The political system centred around the communist party and no other party party or opposition was allowed.

The group of countries that followed USSR ideology came to be known as Second World or 'Socialist Block'. The Warsaw Pact held them together.

Discuss economic measures taken by USSR after First World War.

Lenin initiated a New Economic Policy (NEP) in 1921. The features were:

Peasants were now allowed to keep surplus produce after payment of a tax.
It reintroduced private trade, revived incentive and as a result food production increased.
Small industries were restored to private ownership whereas heavy industry, coal, iron, steel and power remained with under the State control.
Lenin saw NEP as a short term compromise until recovery was assured. His long term vision was full state control of all sectors and introduction of collective farming in agriculture.
NEP was moderately successful and economy began to recover, significant progress was made with respect to electrification of industries.

Lenin died in 1924 and Stalin emerged as the ruler. All leaders who played important role in RR were eliminated e.g Trotsky. Political democracy and freedom of speech was destroyed. Dissent was not tolerated. These had adverse effect on the development of socialism and were against the ideals of Marxism and of the revolution.

In 1929 USSR started its series of 5 year Plan.

It emerged as a major industrial power and began to play crucial role in world affairs.
It made rapid economic progress and was not affected by economic slowdown of 1929.
Small landholdings were brought under collective farming so that tractors and other farm machinery could be employed. Individual ownership of farms was ended. Earlier peasants had the option to join or not but later they were forced to join. This led to many atrocities. Millions of people perished during this period.
Industry mainly produced heavy machinery and military goods while the items of daily necessities were ignored.

Britain established diplomatic relations with USSR in 1933 and USSR was made a member of LoN in 1934. Soviet Union pressed for action against Fascist but the western block did not agree with her and regarded USSR as their chief enemy and continued the policy of appeasement of fascists to counter USSR.

Discuss the situation immediately after WW II

The Soviet Union was more developed than rest of the world except for US. It had a complex communication network, vast energy resources including oil, iron and steel, machinery production and transport sector.
It boasted of a domestic industry that produced everything from pin to cars though the quality did not match that of Western capitalist countries.
The state ensured minimum standard of living, subsidized basic necessities including health, education. There was no unemployment.

What were the problems faced by Russia?

Lack of democracy and absence of freedom of speech stifled people.
One party system had tight control over people and state institutions became bureaucratic, authoritarian and unaccountable. The regime was characterised by rampant corruption and centralisation of authority making life difficult for its citizens
The party refused to recognise the aspirations of people in 15 different republics. It imposed Russian language. As a result people from other regions felt neglected.
It managed to match up to US in arms race at great cost. It lagged behind the West in technology and infrastructure.
Russian invasion of Afghanistan in 1979 weakened the system even further.
There was a severe shortages of consumer goods. Food had to be imported and the economy became stagnant.
Ordinary citizen became more knowledgeable about the economic advance of the West and they could see the disparities between their system and the systems of the West. The reality came as a political and pyschological shock.
People did not identify with the system and the rulers and with passage of time the government increasingly lost popular support.

Discuss the policies of Gorbachev and Russian Disintegration.

Gorbachev sought to reform the system. He introduced the policy of perestroika (restructuring) and glasnost (openness). He tried to normalise relationship with the West. The people in the East European started to protest. Unlike in the past Gorbachev did not intervene and communist regimes collapsed one after another.

He intiated the policies of economic and political reform and democratisation. These reforms were opposed by leaders within the Communist Party. The forces set in motion soon went out of control. Some sections felt that he should have moved faster with reforms while others took the exactly opposite view. They felt that their powers and privileges were eroding. In this 'tug of war' Gorbachev lost support on all sides and public opinion was divided.

The rise of nationalism and the desire of sovereignty within various republics including Russia and Baltic Republic (Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania) proved to be the final and the most immediate cause for the disintegration. People here felt alienated from Central Asians and concluded that they were paying too high an economic price to keep the more backward areas within the Soviet Union. However, the exact reasons are difficult to pinpoint and requires deeper research.

A coup took place in 1991 that was encouraged by Communist Party hardliners. Boris Yelstin emerged as a national hero in opposing this group. He began to shake off centralised control. Power began to shift from Soviet centre to the republics in Europeanised part of Soviet Union. The Central Asian republics wanted to remain with USSR.

In December 1991, Russia, Ukraine and Belarus declared that Soviet Union was disbanded. Communist Party was banned and capitalism and democracy were adopted as basis for post Soviet republics. A Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) was formed. Russia was accepted as successor state of Soviet and carried out some disarmament measures with the US. The old Soviet Union was thus dead and buried.

What were the Consequences of Disintegration

Meant the end of cold war. The ideological battle between capitalism and socialism existed no more. Capitalist economy became the dominant economic system internationally. World Bank and IMF became powerful advisors to all these countries.
Notion of liberal democracy emerged as the best way to organise political life.
Emergence of many new countries. Baltic states became part of NATO
End to arms race and possibility of peace.
US became the sole superpower and resulted in unipolar world.

Discuss Shock Therapy and its consequences.

Painful process of transition from socialist to democratic. Total shift to capitalism required rooting out completely any structures evolved during Soviet period. Private ownership became the dominant pattern of ownership. Collective farms were to be replaced by private farming.

Drastic change in the external orientation of these economies. Development had to come through trade and this meant complete switch to free trade. FDI and free trade were to be the main engines of change. Deregulation and currency convertibility.

Break up of existing trade alliances among the countries of the Soviet bloc. Each state was directly linked to the west and not with one another. The Western capitalist state became the leaders.

Consequences

Did not led the people into the promised utopia of mass consumption. It brought ruin to the economics and disaster upon the people.

90 % of industries were put up for the sale to private individuals. It led to the virtual disappearance of the entire industry. This was called the 'the largest garage sale in history' as valuable industries were undervalued and sold at throwaway prices.

The value of the rouble the Russian currency declined dramatically. The rate of inflation was so high that people lost all their savings.

The disintegration of collective farm system posed threat to food security. As a result Russia had to import food.

The real GDP of Russia in 1999 < 1989.

The system of social welfare was systematically destroyed. The withdrawal of subsidy put large sections of people into poverty. A mafia emerged in most of these countries and started controlling many economic activities. Privatisation led to new disparities. The gulf between rich and poor widened.

The constitutions of all these countries were drafted in a hurry and most had strong executive with the widest possible power that rendered elected parliaments weak. Several Presidents became authoritarian. The presidents of Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan appointed themselves to power first for 10 years and then extended it for another 10 years. No dissent or opposition was allowed. There was no independence of judiciary.

These countries have been reduced to oil and gas economy.

Secessionist movements in Chechnya and Dagestan. Russia's method of dealing involved indiscriminate killings and bombing which led to gross human rights violations.

Tajikistan witnessed a civil war. The instability made life difficult for the people.

The central asian republic have vast hydrocarbon resources and this has resulted in competition. Post 9/11 US wanted military bases in the region and paid the goverment to hire bases to allow airplanes during the wars. Russia perceives these states as its 'Near Abroad' and believes that they should be under Russian influence. China has also shown keen interest in the region.

NATO intervention in Yugoslavia and Serbia conflict.

Discuss India's relations with USSR during cold war period.

Give a brief sketch of various Russian leaders.

Vladimir Lenin (1917-1924)

He was the founder of Bolshevik Communist Party and leader of Russian revolution. He was a source of inspiration for communist all over the world.

Joseph Stalin (1924-1953)

Successor to Lenin. Consolidated USSR during 1924-53. Rapid industrialisation, Five Year Plan, forcible collectivisation of agriculture. Unleashed Great Terro of 1930 where millions perished. Authoritarian functioning and elimination of rivals.

Nikita Krushchev (1953-64)

Denounced Stalin's leadership style. Introduced some reforms and suggested peaceful coexistence with the West. Suppressed popular rebellion in Hungary and was involved in the Cuban Missile Crisis.

Leonid Brezhnev (1964-82)

Proposed Asian Collective Security System. Associated with detente (easing of tension) phase with US. He also suppressed popular rebellion in Czechoslovakia and invaded Afghanistan.

Mikhail Gorbachev (1985-91)

Last leader of the Soviet Union. Introduced economic and political reform policies of perestroika (restructuring) and glasnost (openness). He stopped arms race with USA and withdrew Soviet Troops from Afghanistan and eastern Europe. He helped in the unification of Germany and ended the cold war.

Boris Yelstin (1991-99)

He became the first elected President of Russia. He became critic of Gorbachev and left the Communist Party and led the protest against Soviet regime in 1991 and played a key role in dissolving Soviet Union. He is blamed for hardships suffered by Russians in their transition from communism to capitalism

CHINA

Discuss Subjugation of China

In 16th century Europeans entered China into east Asia and they were successful in creating the bases in China like Macau, Canton and Formosa. The Chinese from very beginning were hostile towards Europeans and they demanded only silver in exchange of Chinese goods. This was the challenge for Europeans and in such circumstances they started promoting opium trade in China. This led to social problems in China. The government started taking steps against this trade.

In 1800 China declared opium trade as illegal.
In 1839 Chinese military officer Lin was deputed to confiscate the opium containers and this led to first opium war of 1840 in which Chinese gave following concession to Europeans.
- Compensation to European companies.
- HongKong was given to Britain.
- Chinese opened 5 ports for European traders.

Britain and France wanted more concessions from China. They needed some issue to raise another war. They got the issue with the killing of French missionary and insult of British flag. This led to the second Opium war (1856-58) in which China was yet again defeated and had to accept the Treaty of Teinstein (1858) whose provisions were:

Compensation to European companies.
Opened 11 port for European traders.
Acceptance to European traders and officials in China.
Extra territorial rights under which Europeans were to be tried in European courts and not in Chinese courts.

Taiping Rebellion

The revolt was led by Huan Hsim Chuan a protestant by faith who wanted to eliminate idolatory and nature worship in China. The revolt proved to be powerful as it controlled Nanking for 11 years. With the help of foreigners Chinese government was successful in suppressing the revolts.

China was on the verge of disintegration but was saved ultimately.

Boxer Uprising: A secret society of fist fighters who were against everything foreign in China

Open door policy of US (1899): US was not interested in territorial expansion but focussed more on protecting its trading interests. It came out with open door policy in which it appealed to Europeans nations to open their doors for trade and commerce among each other. This led to economic integration finally opening the path of political integration of China.

Britain Japan Alliance (1902): It concentrated on protecting political, economic interest of China.

Rebirth of China

Young China Movement: It was a movement carried out by youth of China focussing on political, economic and social and cultural reforms. China started moving towards modernisation in which the great contribution was of Kang Hu Tse who is also called as modern saint of China. For more than 50 years this movement played an important role in transition of China.

Revolutions

1911

Manchu dynasty ended in China and national assembly inivited Sun Yat Sen to manage the government and he became the 1st president of Chinese republic. To recognise the contribution of China in the 1st WW and to contain the expansionist Japan the western powers adopted liberal steps towards China. Under Washington Conference (1921) the humiliating terms and conditions of earlier treaties were ended China was given equal status.

After the death of Sun Yat Sen and a civil war started in China between Kuomintang under Chiang Kai Shek and the Communist Party of China under Mao Zedong. The two sides cooperated for some time to resist Japanese aggression but after the Japanese defeat the hostilities resumed again.
Kuomintang was mainly represented by capitalist and landlords. CPC was a party of workers and peasants. It had expropriated the lands of landlords and distributed among landless peasants. It had won over millions of Chinese people. CP also organised a huge army called the People's Liberation Army. Chiang-Kei-Sheik who faced troubles from al the states from 1927-49.
- Challenge from Tuchans (Warlords) in northern China
- Communist uprising. Nanking episode of 1927 in which communist misbehaved with foreigners in China and tried to blame the government.
- Japan's attack on China in 1937.
- Pressure of second world war

1949 Revolutions

China got an able leadership in the form of Mao Zedong (Mao-Tse-Tung) who started the long march from Southern China to northern China and was successful in getting the support of warrior class and in 1949 Mao Zedong replaced the nationalist government of Chiang Kei Sheik.

US gave massive support to Chiang Kai Shek but by 1949 his army was completely routed. He went to Taiwan (Formosa) and on 1 October 1949 hte People's Republic of China was proclaimed and CP under Mao Zedong came to power. It was a world shaking event. Two mighty communist country in the world. Imperialism was further weakened.

This was the birth of People's Republic of China which started working under 3 fundamental principles

Nationalism - Nation was above race, religion or region.
Democracy - Government should be run according to the wish of the people.
Livelihood - Economy should have 2 objectives. Employment to the people and strengthening of Chinese economy

The basic difference between Chinese communism and USSR was that Stalin followed communism completely on theoretical lines which turned communism as a new oppressor in USSR e.g Kolkhoz (state farms which were completely controlled by the state) while Mao Zedong believed in practical communism as he maintained property rights in land and also gave support to a level to private sector in the country.

US refused to recognize the govt. for over 2 decades. China was denied even membership of UN.

JAPAN

Three phases:

1853-1867 : Period of slavery
1868-1894 : Rise of Modern Japan
1894-1910: World Power

During 16th century Europeans started moving in eastern region. Japanese govt got annoyed and closed its doors for foreigners. Japan maintained its isolation from 16th century to 2nd half of 19th century. In 1853 Commodore Perry the US naval officer encircled the main island of Japan and compelled its govt for humiliating treaties. Japan opened the door for foreigners. This was the beginning of subjugation of Japan by US and European powers.

Rise of Japan

Defeat led to awakening. Japanese intellectuals were sent to Europe to find out the reasons for defeat. These came out with 3 important reasons.

Economic empowerment based on capitalism and industrialisation
Powerful political set up emphasising on democratic principles
Humanism and rationalism. This became the guideline for Japan.

1st development was

Self liberation and Meiji restoration

Japan was divided into 4 classes

Mikado - Ruler
Shogun - PM
Damnios - Feudal Lords
Samurai - Warriors

The last 2 groups surrendered their powers and privileges to king. Sense of sacrifice and respect. This led to social equality, end of feudalism and increase in the strength of king. Japanese emperor Mutushito was placed in Yogo (Tokyo) with complete authority in his hand and this was called as self Liberation or Meiji restoration.

After getting powerful political set up the next development was self empowerment in which the important developments were:

Education

Compulsory primary education for boys and girls in English medium emphasizing on modern education.

Constitution

Japan framed its constitution in which the main contribution was of Prince Ito. It was based on Prussian model which emphasized on powerful emperor and house of representative. Japanese parliament has 2 houses

House of Teers. It was the house of intellectuals which saw infra development and industrialisation in Japan.
House of Representatives.

Imperialism

China

Defeated China in 1895.

Korea

Korea was the link for Japan with mainland of Asia. Korea was theoretically under the control of China was practically it was an autonomous state as China itself was facing political and economic unstability. Japan took advantage of this situation and introduced economic and political reforms in Korea. This led to the first Sino Japanese war in which China was defeated and was compelled to accept the Treaty of Shimonoseki. By this treaty China accepted supremacy of Japan on Korea. Russia got alarmed as it feared Japanese move towards Manchuria which had a vast coal and iron reserves.

The tension between Japan and Russia made Britain happy as it wanted a powerful ally in Asia to counter Russia. This led to British Japan alliance of 1902. Bolstered by the support of Britain Japan inflicted a crushing defeat on Russia in 1905. This provided Japan the world status alongwith superpowers which was clear by the Treaty of Portsmouth (1905) where US gave equal status to Japan ending all the treaties that treated Japan unequally. In 1910 Japan occupied Korea.

Military Fascism

Military in Japan.

Opposed existing political set up in Japan.
Established patriotic societies to glorify the achievements of military.
Carried out political assassinations.
Dominated the political set up by occupying important setup. e.g General Tojo became the PM of Japan.

In this way Japan came under the control of dictatorship of military which was under the impact of Shintoism (a philosophy preaced by Shinto cult which teaches devotion to the ruler and state. This led to aggressive policies of Japan)

Japan gave the slogan of Asia for Asians and New Order.

The rift between Japan and US started from Paris Peace Conference (1919) when Japan demanded German territories in China like Shantung. US immediately opposed this move and this was the beginning of rift between Japan and US. In 1931 it occupied Manchuria. Japan emphasized on 21 Point Programme under which it demanded that China should be under the military protection of Japan. This was against the Open Door Policy of USA in China and this started the struggle between Japan and USA. Japan declared war against China in 1937 which led to Second Sino Japanese war. US imposed economic sanctions on Japan by putting a ban on the export of scrap iron and oil to Japan in 1940 and freezed Japanese account in US.

Japan retaliated by attacking Pearl Harbour in 1941 and this marked the entry of US in WW2. After the cataclysmic nuclear attack on Hiroshima and Nagasaki Japan surrendered.

AMERICAN REVOLUTION

Queen Elizabeth declaration led to settlement of 13 colonies. Virginia was the first colony (1607)

Reasons ?

Economic

America was completely under the control of England which led to economic exploitation of Americans which hampered growth and development.
Navigation Law of 1651 - Compulsory for American ships to attend British ports before leaving for other ports of the world.
Exim Policy - Britain had a trading monopoly in crucial products of America like Potato, Tobacco, Cotton etc
Industrial Policy - Americans were not allowed to establish big production units.

Social

It became land of opportunity. Creation of new social structure which was different from Europe. It became melting pot of all sorts of people, ideas, religion and tradition. This led to a liberal attitude in society.
People were detached from their mother land. The large part of the population consisted of rebels, refugees, convicts who were in search for the future. Large scale migration took place. e.g Pilgrim Fathers - Protestant groups which had escaped to save itself from operation of catholic saints
Dynamism of society - Turned barren land into area of plantations and production which forced Europe to rely on American goods and products.
Dissatisfaction - Fruits of American labour were snatched away by Britain.

Intellectual Class

Intellectual class provides for reason for crisis and solution for it.

Thomas Paine: He published a journal called Common Sense. He explained the economic exploitation of America by Britain.
Benjamin Franklin: He established philosophical society of America to create awakening and awareness.
Henry Pattrick: Provoked the people when he said that give me death or independence.

External Events

7 year war between France and Britain wrecked Britain economically. It gave promotion to American goods and industry. For the first time America got free hand to take their product directly to world marke. This increased the status of America and energised its people.
Defeat of French in the North. It ended the French fear for American colonies.

Discuss the important Events

Grenville Policy

Britain was going under financial crisis after 7 years war and was desperately needing money. Grenville (British PM) imposed new taxes on Americ e.g stamp duty, sugar duty.

Imposed old restrictions on American trade and commerce like navigation law of 1651.

Americans raised the issue of Englishman Resolution (1689) which promised representation in parlimaent to tax paying section. Americans raised the slogans of No Taxation Without Representation.

Formation of organisations like Son's of Liberty and Daughter's of Liberty which raided stamp vendors and burnt down stamps.

Ruckingham Declaration

Britain failed to see the real cause for agitation and through this declaration abolished stamp duties.

Boston Massacre

Samuel Adams led a mass protest in Boston. Britain committed the mistake of taking military action which led to Boston Massacre.

It was the beginning of new political phenomenon i.e. protest by the people for their rights from the ruler. This was not possible in pre modern age because of the concept of divine rights.

Boston Tea Party

Britain imposed tax on tea imports in America. This was widely resented. Samuel Adams disguised himself and others as native Indians, entered the port and threw all Tea into the Atlantic Ocean. Britain closed the Boston port and this led to further protests.

Philadelphia Convention of 1774

Formation of American Union. Unity of American colonies against exploitation of Britain.
Americans sent Olive Branch Petition. They were still ready to be under the parentage of Britain on the condition that restriction on trade should be remove and representation in parliament.

2nd Philadelphia Convention

America declared itself independent.

Battle of Lexington and Concord

The $ army was led by George Washington. After some initial reverses they were able to defeat English. They were helped in this cause by French who wanted to seek revenge from old foe. Later Spain also joined hands in defeating Britain.

Cornwallis surrendered.

Paris Treaty

Britain accepted the independence of America.

3rd Philadelphia Convention (1787)

American Colonies turned into American Union which was later called as United States.
It was a Republic. Head of the state was to be elected.
Birth of man made constitution based on the principle of humanism providing liberty and equality of the people.

Evaluation

Modern democratic set up.
IR -> Economic Revolution | AR -> Political Revolution
Promotion to modern political ideology like liberty, equality. Fundamental Rights. Beginning of demand of rights from common people.
Dominance of common man in admin and politics. Slogan of govt of the people, by the people and for the people
Inspiration to other colonies. Soon colonies in South America revolted against Spain and got independence.
Inspiration for French Revolution

AMERICAN CIVIL WAR

After the American Revolution US underwent massive expansion. It was divided into North and Southern states along the Maxon Dixon Line.

How did US expand after American Revolution?

Louisiana the largest state was purchased from Napolean in France in 1803.
Florida was taken from Spain.
Native Indians were removed from their territories and were sent to the west of Mississippi river.
Mexico was defeated in a war during 1846-48 and states of Nevada, California, Colorado etc were incorporated.
Thus US grew from 13 states to 48 states by the middle of the 19th century.

Discuss the economic situation in Northern and Southern States.

Northern States

These states were New York, New Jersey, Michigan etc.
They were Industrialised, rich followed capitalism and had access to vast natural resources.
There were 1200 cotton mills. Business, banking and shipping sectors developed.
Universities of Harvard and Yale began to attract large number of students.
Construction of canals and railroads.
These states received large number of immigrants from Europe who were liberal and had progressive outlook.
Demanded strong tariff policy to protect industry from European competition.
Wished to abolish slavery out of humanitarian concern. Feared that western states would also come under slavery.

Southern States

These states were South Carolina, Georgia, Mississippi, Florida and Texas.
Economically backward. Feudalism dominated.
Agricultural economy. Plantation dominated e.g Cotton, Tobacco were dominant crops. Cotton was king.
They opposed increase of tariff duty as they imported their agri tools from Europe
Employed large number of slaves on farms. Slaves were mostly brought from West Africa. They had no right and could not become free. They were subjected to torture and flogging. Plantation workers were haughty, aristocratic.
They were against the abolition of slavery and considered any such move to be harmful to their economy and as evil designs of northern territory.

How did Northern and Southern States viewed the system of slavery?

Northern States

Northern condemned slavery as it was against their conscience. Britain had outlawed slavery in 1833.
Number of anti-slavery societies were formed in cities e.g New England Anti Slavery Society (1832) and American Anti-Slavery Society (1833).
William Garrison started an anti slavery newspaper The Liberator.
Uncle Toms Cabin a novel by Ms Stowe reflected the miserable condition of slaves in Southern States.
Northern were afraid that slavery would spread to newly conquered territories.

Southern States

There were 4.5 million slaves. Southern states viewed slavery as a source of sustenance and believed that without plantation workers their economy would be doomed.
The Fugitive Slave Act (1850) forced the northern states to arrest the escaped slaves and hand back to the owner.
They blamed Northern States for encouraging revolt of the states.

Discuss the events leading upto Civil War.

Missouri Agreeement (1820)

It was meant to keep balance between anti slavery north and pro slavery south. It admitted Missouri as a state where slavery could be practiced and Maine where slavery was prohibited.

Dred Scott Incident (1857)

Dred Scott, a slave, went to the north and lived there for some time. He petitioned the Supreme Court to make him a free citizen on the ground that he had lived in free states. SC denied him free citizenship. SC declared Missouri Compromise as unconstitutional. It ruled that Congress had no power to decide on the issue of slavery.

Rise of Republican Party

Republican Party was born to end slavery in US. At that time Congress was dominated by members from the South. Republicans desired introduction of high tariff on imported goods to protect business interest in North whereas southern states were dead against it.

7 States Leave the Union

South Carolina, Florida, Mississippi etc. left the union and formed Federation of States in 1861. Lincoln stated that states had no right to secede from the union. He declared that Union was older than Constitution.

Southern states formed a Confederacy and declared Jefferson Davis as its President. It hoped of gaining support from Britain and France.

Course of The Civil War

The war broke when southern states attackd Fort Sumter. The fall of fort led Lincoln to declare war against south.
Lincoln declared a state of emergency and suspended all civil liberties enjoyed by citizens.
He raised a force of 30,000 troops and ordered them to march to Richmond, Virginia which was the capital of Confederates. The Union troops were however defeated.
James Brown raided military arsenal and supplied arms and ammunition to slaves to fight against their masters. A large number of liberated slaves helped Union forces during the war as volunteers.
Commander Ulysses Grant led a major campaign and captured Confederate forts. This was followed by victory in the famous Battle of Gettysberg in 1863.
The victory in Gettysberg ended the war.

Reasons for South's Defeat?

North had a population of 23 million which was wealth compared to poor Southern states which had only 9 million population.
The North enjoyed better communication system, railroad and weapons. The industrial development gave an edge over backward south.
Britain remained neutral during the war. South expected Britain to intervene as it was a major importer of cotton from south. Britain hailed the emancipation proclamation by Lincoln. The relationship between Britain and North eased. Britain imported sufficient quantity of cotton from India and wheat from Northern States.
The Northern generals adopted better strategy and had better navy through which it imposed naval blockage which prevented flow of arms and ammunition to southern states.

Outcome of War?

After the passage of 13th Amendment slavery was abolished. The unity of the union was preserved.
Both sides suffered heavy casualties. South was totally devastated and its economy collapsed.
Through 14th and 15th amendment civil rights were extended to former male slaves.
It acted as catalyst for industrialisation of US. By the end of 19th century US became an industrial giant.
In the South unlawful and anti social organisations like Ku Klux Klan and the Knights of the White Camellia (white supremacist groups) took to kidnapping and torturing black people. The prejudiced towards blacks manifested for a long time.
Civil war was the message of efficiently handling of internal crisis by mature leaders.

Discuss the Role of Abraham Lincoln?

Background

Lincoln (1809 - 1865) was born in a poor family in Kentucky and did not have any formal education. He showed keen interest in studies and passed bar examination and started practising as a lawyer in 1836. He impressed people with his "shrewdness, common sense and honesty". He earned the nickname "Honest Abe".
He became a member of House of Representatives and joined Republican Party in 1856.
He stood for Presidential election and defeated Stephen Douglas (ardent supporter of slavery). He became the 16th President of USA.

Role in Slavery Abolition

He argued that slavery was morally wrong and opposed its extention into new territories.
He stated that important priority for him was American union which was formed by the sacrifice of ancestors. This created an emotional wave.
He took military action against south. He took help of volunteers for propagating the cause of American union.
He succeeded in moving the 13th amendment in 1865. By this amendment slavery was abolished in America. He showed exemplary leadership and maturity in handling internal crisis.
After the civil war he planned the reconstruction of south.
He was assassinated on 14 April, 1865.

Quotation

Gettysberg Address : "Government of the people, by the people and for the people"

FRENCH REVOLUTION

Reasons?

Economic Causes

Disastrous policies of Louis XVI. Participation of French forces in the American war of Indpendence had completely ruined the French economy.
Louis XIV declared himself the state and fought innumerable wars. The king was interested in worldly pleasures and did not care for the welfare of the people.
Irresponsible expenditure of royal households worsened the situation. The palace of Versailles was called as the graveyard of the national income. The government resorted to borrowing from public and defaulted on its debt.
The Queen Marie Antoinette lived in luxury and did not care for the plight of the masses. She is associated with the famous remark - "If they don't have bread let them eat cakes?"
To meet expenditure Louis XVI tried to impose new taxes on people which met wide resistance.
Church owned 20% of land in France and enjoyed its revenues. Any attempt to levy tax on church was threatened met with reply : "Do not make us choose between God and the King, for you know what are answer will be."
Peasants paid close to 86% of their income in the form of taxes.

Political

Weakening administration led to anarchy in the country.
No representation of Third Estate in the governance of the country. The upper middle resented being left out of the civilian and military administration.
The first two estates i.e. nobility and clergy did not have to pay any taxes.
The king enjoyed power over life by issuing the notorious letter de catchet by which persons were imprisoned without any trial.

Social

Differences between privileged and non privileged class. Clergy, Nobles and Common man. The Church formed the 1st estate and enjoyed all the privileges, the nobles the second state and the common man the third estate.
A majority of bishops lived a life of luxury.

Age of Reason / Role of Intellectuals

Voltaire: Creativity is the biggest force. Freedom of expression. Newton and Galileo are bigger than Alexander and Caesar. The best way to promote creativity is through Freedom of Expression.
Montesquieu: Rejected autocratic government and called for responsible government. This could only be achieved through separation of power.
Rousseau: His Social Contract theory caused a sensation. He gave a stirring slogan - "Man is born free but everywhere in chains". Kingship is not the gift of the God to the kings. It is the outcome of the contract between the rulers and the ruled and king should respect the will of the people. This can be only respected by giving Liberty, Equality and Fraternity to the people.
Didrouet: He prepared the encyclopaedia of the problem faced by France alongwith solution to those problem. He denounced the role of religion in polity and administration. He gave the promotion to the concept of secularism.

The intellectuals of France not only acted as a guide for France but they provided the fundamental philosophy of modern polity and administration.

Immediate Cause

The drought of 1788-89 broke the peasant's back. A loaf of bread now cost his full day's wage. Pesants left their villages for cities in the hope of getting their problems resolved.
The success of American Revolution inspired the French. Many of the French generals had participated in American war.

Discuss Important Events during French Revolution

Estates General

Amidst political deadlock Louis XVI tried to use force against people. He started ruling France through Ordinance which gave birth to riots in different parts. People demanded the invitation of estates general.
Louis XVI invited estates general. Large number of people started moving towards Paris. People demanded change in voting pattern as 5% of the population enjoyed 2/3rd vote and the voice of common people were ignored. They demanded voting rights as per population ratio and voting rights based on One Person, One Vote.
Louis XVI closed the doors of the assembly. People gathered in a nearby Tennis court and declared themselves as national representative aspiring to frame the constitution for France. Thus a national assembly was born.
Louis XVI committed 2 blunders: He dismissed Necker who was a sympathiser of common man. This sent a wrong message to the people that the king was acting against people. He started gathering troops in Paris.

Fall of Bastille (14 July 1789)

Basille was fort cum prison and a symbol of royal despotism. The motive of the people was to release political prisoners and to gather arms and ammunition. Fall of Basille became the inspiration for direct action in France. Old ruling class Manors (residing place of feudal lords) became the special target of the people.
Formation of National Guards under General Lafayatte. This was the biggest development as army came under the command of the common people. Tricolour flag of the revolution was adopted.
Begining of modern administrative system as the people in Paris established Municipal Corporation in Paris to manage the city. This was called Paris commune.
It signified victory of common man on autocracy and aristocracy.
When the King heard about the fall of Bastille, he said - "This is a great revolt" but his minister replied - "No, Sir, It's a great revolution!"
The King had to recognise National Assembly and took Necker into service.
Some liberal minded nobles and clergy came forward to renounce their rights and privileges.

Peasant Revolt

Peasants rose against the nobles and burnt their castles.
Municipal governments were formed on the Paris model in all towns.
Feudalism, titles, serfdom stood abolished.

Drafting of Constitution (1791)

The power centre in France after the Fall of Basille was National Assembly and it drafted the first constitution of France in 1791.

The important features were:

It included the "Declaration of the Rights of Man". It asserted that "all men are free and equal". Freedom of expression, Judicial Rights, Liberty, Equality and Fraternity.
Constitutional Monarchy: People were not against monarchy but against inequality and exploitation.
A single assembly instead of bicameral legislature was formed. The members were elected by indirect election through electoral college. King became only the nominal head and had limited veto right.
There was no universal suffrage and voting rights were restricted to those who paid taxes.
A decentralised system of government was introduced.
Religion was subordinated to the state as people got the right to elect the priestly class and they took the oath of loyalty to the state. Pope became the superficial religious head and church property was nationalised.
Mixed Economy: Equal respect for capitalism and socialism. It started the new currency Assignats (paper currency).

King Flees

Louis XVI had enough and he hatched a plan to escape and win back his empire. However, he was caught escaping and brought back to Paris. This further infuriated the masses as they labelled King as traitor and as someone who was deserting them in the need of hour.

Political Clubs

Two prominent clubs Jacobians and Cordelier was born.
Jacobians consisted of assembly members and local politicians. Maxmillian Robospierre was the most influential leader of Jacobian club. Jacobians gained control over the assembly and forced it to obey their wishes.
It had more than 2000 branches all over France.
The members of Cordelier were from lower strata of society. It thought of establishing a republic with the worker's support. Danton was its popular leader. It remained restricted to Paris only and did not have any branches.

Revolutionary Wars

European countries like Prussia, Austria declared war against France as they did not want to meet the same fate as Louis XVI. They wanted to contain the spread of the nationalist movement and restore monarchy in France.
They made a declaration of Pilnitz (1791). It threatened the success of revolution and led to dangerous situation.

Reign of Terror

Marat, a Jacobian leader, used to publish furious and provoking messages in the newspaper. He called for execution of anti revolutionaries. Robospierre was the man in charge. He unleashed bloodshed by conducting trials and putting to death all anti revolutionist and sympathiser of monarchy.
Thousands of execution were carried out and people could be sent to trial even on trivial matters such as complaining against rise in food prices.
All dissenters were put to death and a special machine Guillotine was designed to cause speedy, painfree death.
Louis XVI and his wife Marie Antoinette were executed.
Ultimately people became fed up of the violence and Maxmillian Robospiere the chief architect of the revolution was himself put to death. This ended the cycle of violence and restored temporary peace.

National Convention (1792 - 95)

France became Constitutional republic as there was no king in France.
The country was to have 2 houses: Upper House and Lower House. The proposals were to be made in the upper house but they can be only passed in the lower house.
Religion became the personal affair and lost all support from the state.
Prices of food grains and goods were fixed by the "laws of maximum".
Complete abolition of feudal custom and manners and everybody was addressed as citizen.
Capitalist were declared enemies and prices of commodities were fixed. Emphasis on communism.
Slavery was eradicated.
Compulsory military service and a code of law for the whole country was introduced.

However, the convention had several shortcomings.

The interference of state in personal lives of people was resented.
Doing away with the authority of the church irritated the catholic population.
Emphasis on communism frightened the capitalist class

Discuss the importance of French Revolution

It was a landmark event in the history of mankind. It was an attempt to build a new society on the principles of liberty, equality and fraternity.
It rejected tyranny, divine right and feudalism.
It wished to establish an egalitarian society.
Total separation of religion from the state was brought about. It laid the foundation of modern secular state. The education system was built on secular foundations.
It ushered in the era of nationalism and liberalism and paved the way for revolutions in other parts of Europe.

FRANCE UNDER NAPOLEAN

Napolean Bonaparte

Napolean was born on August 15, 1769 in the island of Corsica. The island was a colony of France. Napolean secured a scholarship to study at Royal Military College. He had once contemplated joining English East India Company (that would have been awesome !)

Turlom Expedition

Napolean was sent to Turlom to repel British naval fleet. There was certainly a vaccuum and opportunity for officers who could prove themselves under fire. He successfully handled the situation.
British fled and Turlom was recaptured. In just 3 months he rose from Captain to Brigadier General. He was finally made Commander of the army after he successfully thwarted a revolt in Paris and saved National Convention.
He married Marie Josephine, a 32 year old widow. She was a member of high society and had political links and was mistress of the ruler.

Italian Expedition

Italy was under the control of Austria. Napolean was sent to Italian Alps. His assignment was to challenge the power of allies of Prussia. Everyone made fun of him for French army was ill equipped. Napolean was in no condition to win anything. However, through his inspirational speeches he tranformed French Army into a fighting machine
Within just 2 weeks he won 6 battles. He was hailed as "liberator" in Italy.

After the victory he dictated the terms of the treaty with Austria and signed the Treaty of Campofornia and he turned into a hero of France. According to the treaty:

Rhineland became the natural frontier of France. France got the control on Coal and Iron deposits of the region.
He was accepted as guardian of Italian republic.
He also got control on Netherlands and Lombardy.
He gifted the area of rich natural resources to France at the time of crisis and that too free of cost. The expenditure of the whole expedition was borne by the defeated forces.

Egyptian Expedition

He landed in Egypt in a hope to disrupt British trade routes with India. Egyptians were part of Turkish empire ruled by Mamaluks who were known for their cruelty. Napolean defeated them in the Battle of Pyramids (1798). He led his army into Cairo and wasted much time in enjoyment.
His dreams were quickly shattered. His fleet of warships was destroyed by British fleet led by Nelson, the famous British admiral.
After this defeat he spent lot of time in studying Egypt. Egypt was an enigma for Europeans. He brought remarkable groups of mathematicians (e.g Cauchy), architects and scientists. They produced 24 volumes on Egypt. Rosetta stone was the most important discovery.
In 1799 he took his army to Syria. He assaulted Acra. French soldiers perished in bubonic plague. He had to return to Acra.
He secretly returned to France leaving 30,000 soldiers in Egypt. The govt in Paris was in disarray. He dreamed of rescuing France. The campaign in Egypt, a military disaster was projected as a successful campaign. The people hailed him as the conqueror of Egypt.
Napolean was aware that rule of Directory was highly unpopular. The debt was mounting, bandits roamed the countryside. He planned a military coup and found a way to seize power.

Coup d'etat

With the help of his brother he overthrew the Directory in 1799.
A provisional three councils was set up. Later NB dismissed the 2 councils made himself the head of the state.
He organised Sainklu Convention and became the first council in 1799. He later crowned himself King. Just 15 years back French people had executed King and now they crowned a new one !
Napolean divorced his wife and married the daughter of ruler of Habsburg empire in order to have a son.

Discuss reforms undertaken by Napolean.

Economic

Peace with Europe: Appealed to the rulers of Austria and England asking them the utility of war in the era of prosperity and development. Treaty of Ameims between England and France leading to friendly relations between two countries.
He took steps for increasing fertility of the soil, barren and unproductive lands were brought under cultivation. He also adopted liberal attitude towards farmers.
Established Bank of France to strengthen and manage currency system.
Chamber of commerce and commercial exchange was founded. He improved the system of taxation.
France also witnessed industrial revolution. Means of tranport and communications were improved. Many canals, roads and bridges were built. Napolean was particularly interested in beautiful cities and made Paris the most attractive city in Europe.
He never bothered about land reforms and did not give promotion to industrialisation. French economy was still backward and weak.
He ignored the advice of Fulton to introduce Steam Boats in France.

Political

Turned France from republic to monarchy. He organised Plebisite in France. He got 30 lakh votes in support and on this ground he became the emperor of France in 1804
He established 4 Houses: Council of States, Senate, Tribunate and Legislative Body and introduced a Unique voting system known as 10 % law. It was a list system. District (10%) -> State (10%) -> Centre (10%). From Centre list only Napolean could pick members for 4 houses.
Bureaucrats were called Prefects. Appointment and transfers of these officers was in the hands of Napolean and they were only responsible to Napolean.
It was a democracy only in name. It was completely under the control of Napolean.
Centralisation was the chief characteristic of his rule.
He sold Louisiana territory in North America to USA as he was in need for money.

Educational

National Assembly took out education from the hands of religion when it established National Education Council. Napolean established secular institution for education for primary to higher education.
Napoleanism was part of the syllabus. Glorification of Napolean was done in schools.
A number of technical schools were founded in France.
He neglected primary education.

Law

Napolean Code. He codified modern law and set up Code of Civil and Criminal Procedure, Commercial code etc. His codes are still relevant and followed.
It provided individual rights and duties and organised all spheres of social life and institutions. The duties of parents and children were defined.

Others

Started the Legion of Honour.
Concordat Agreement - Pope was accepted nominal religious head of the Nation. Catholic religion was declared as the religion of the majority.
He misbehaved with Pope during his coronation ceremony at Notredam.

All his reforms were basically meant to strengthen his position. France still lagged behind in economy, polity and culture.

Give an account of blunders of Napolean and his subsequent Fall.

Numerous Wars

He fought approximately 40 wars. The important wars were:

Battle of Astroliptz: Defeated the combined armies of Austria and Prussia. Napolean considered it as one of his greatest victory.
Battle of Iaana: He defeated Prussian army and destroyed the Holy Roman Empire.
Battle of Iaaloo: Russia was defeated. Through the Treaty of Tilsit Russia became the friend of France

These wars caused much resentment among European powers and they united against Napolean.

Continental Policy

Britain was a super power during Napolean and was economically, industrially and militarily advanced. Napolean was not able to defeat her in war. His defeat in Trafalgar Square was a shock to his dreams. But he was determined to challenge the authority. As European nations were the biggest importer of British products, he sought to impose a ban on imports and trade relations with Britain. He hoped that this would wreck Britain economically.
He made 3 declarations: Berlin (1806), Milan (1807), Fontebeleiau (1808)
It proved to be harmful because Britain had a huge market outside of Europe. On the other hand import of industrial goods harmed France and European countries and caused economic hardships.
Russia left France on this issue and this was the beginning of rift between France and Russia.

Spanish Ulcer

Violation of Sovereignty : France often violated the sovereignty of Spain during its military campaign. Its forces used to cross Spain without taking permission from Spain.
Ferdinand Episode : King Ferdinand of Spain was facing some internal crisis and Napolean replaced him by his brother Joseph. This was a cause for much resentment in Spain
Land Reforms of Ferdinand : Joseph started snatching away land from Feudal lords and distributed to farmers but it united aristocrats against him and they raised the slogan of Spanish nationalism. Napolean wasted a lot of resource in fighting Spain and managed to turn a friend into enemy.
Napolean was not able to break the will of the people and went against the advice.

Russian Disaster

Napolean attacked Russia. He initially secured easy victories and captured Moscow but met with stiff resistance afterward. However, lakhs of soldiers perished in the freezing cold weather of Russia. The campaign ended in a big failure and out of 6,00,000 soldiers that had gone to fight only 90,000 returned. The French army no longer existed as fighting force. The weakening of Napolean gave an opportunity to others to unite and seek revenge.

End of Napolean

Prussia, Britain, Russia inflicted a crushing defeat on Napolean in the Battle of Leipzig. He renounced his throne in 1814. He drank the poison but did not die.
He was imprisoned in Elba and was expected to spend rest of his life here. He became Emperor of isle of Elba and regained work and action. He set up a miniature court and even a flag!
He returned back and ruled France for 100 days. He was finally defeated at Waterloo by a combined force of Prussia and Britain. He was captured and deported to island of St. Helena where he died in 1821.

Impact of Napolean

Took the ideas of FR to different parts of Europe through his 40 wars. He gave promotion to Nationalism in these countries.
Promotion to Education and Law.
Defeated and wiped out smaller states which ultimately became the cause for unification of Germany and Italy.

10 Great Quotations

"I found the crown of France in gutter and I picked it up"
"The Man of Genius always gets back to his feet"
"There is always one step between sublime and ridiculous"
"My power depends on my glory and glory depends upon victory"
"Everything on earth is soon forgotten except the opinion we leave imprinted in history. There is no immortality but the memory that we leave in the minds of the men"
"Conquest alone made me what I am and conquest alone would keep me where I am."
"Religion is excellent stuff for keeping people quiet."
"It is better to Eat than being Eaten."
"Liberty can not be secured unless criminals lose their head."
"Great men become great because they have mastered Luck."

Discuss the significance of Vienna Congress ?

It took place in 1815 and was based on Principle of Legitimacy and Principle of Compensation.

Reasons

To put the house in order and strengthen existing political system in Europe.
Maintain checks on events like FR and Napolean
Maintain balance of power in Europe.

Principle of Legitimacy

Return back to the old state to their original ruling houses.

Louis XVIII became emperor of France.
Holland was returned to Orange family.
Papal states were restored back to Pope.

Principle of Compensation

Power that fought with Napolean wanted their share of profit and compensation. As a result

Russia got Finland and control on Poland.
Sardinia and Prussia got large share in their areas which finally compelled them for unification of Germany and Italy.
Austria got Venice and Lombardy and it also became the head of German states.

Promotion to Alliance System

It was formed to handle events like FR and Napolean.

Holy Alliance: Proposed by Czar Alexander I of Russia. Motive was to unite Christian powers of Europe on grounds of religion. It was not taken seriously
Quadruple Alliance: Included Russia, Austria, Prussia and Britain. Finally France was also admitted. It was called Concert of Europe.

Suppression of Nationalism

Nationalism was the binding force for common people so it became the main target for the reactionary forces in Europe. e.g Suppression of revolt in Naples in 1820

Vienna convention was thus the victory of reactionary forces and provided peace in Europe for next 30 years.

UNIFICATION OF DEUTSCHLAND

Reasons?

Situation

Germany was divided into West Phalia, Rhineland, Bohemian Plateau, Prussia but shared common bond of unity. German language, race and culture.
It was an area of gifted resources but was backward. This was the pain for intelligentsia in Germany

Exploitation

They always had a non German ruler. Earlier they were part of Holy Roman Empire and after the Vienna Convention the control passed over in the hands of Austrian empire. It went against the interest of German states.

Impact of Napolean

Napolean abolished the smaller states in West Germany and established the single state of West Phalia which started giving promotion to Trade and Commerce in this area. This acted as a catalytic force for German unification. Napolean gave the taste and importance of unity to German states.

Thinkers

Fichte gave the concept of German idealism which was based on the principle of superiority of German culture and race.
F.W.Neitzche of Master morality and Slave Morality. He raised the slogan of Live Dangerously.

Discuss the events leading to unification

German Diet

In Vienna Congress Austria was declared as the head of German states. There were 38 states and it was not possible to administer. Therefore it formed German Diet having the members nominated by Kings of German states. This led to the beginning of crude political unity of German states. The features were:

General resolutions can be passed by 2/3rd majority
Fundamental and Constitutional changes can only be done by acceptance of all the states.

Zolleverein

Prussia passed Zolleverein i.e custom union of German states. This gave promotion to trade and commerce in Germany and led to economic unity.

Revolutions

Revolutions of 1830 and 1848 gave momentum to revolution. Charles X had succeeded the Louis XVIII. He became autocratic and had to finally leave the throne in 1830. Kingship lost the divine rights. King became the representative of common people and had to work according to the wish of the common people.

The year 1847 saw economic depression in Britain. This had a cascading effect in Europe as trouble started brewing. This created hardships for working class and led to revolution in 1848 and in which labour class moved on to street to fight for their rights. Karl Marx came out with his communist manifesto in 1848. The revolutions put a question mark on the exisiting political set up and the only acceptance for the ruler was to accept the wish of the people.

2nd Frankfurt Parliament

It was attended by representatives of German states. The basic agenda was to frame the constitution for German people. The question was to frame 38 different constitution or single constitution. It declared a German Union under the leadership of Prussia. But things took U-turn and Prussia rejected the proposal because:

It wanted to be the real head of German union and for that the proposal was to be given by rulers of the state but here it was given by representative of state.
It was warned by Austria as not to get involved in any such activity.

Disuss the Role of Bismarck

He is known as the Wonderman of World History. He was appointed as Chancellor of Prussia by King William and gave the Policy of Blood and Iron. He was clear that war with Austria was a necessity. He pushed for modernisation of army despite facing opposition from Parliament. He undertook economic reforms and followed an Entrapment policy.

Economic Reforms

He set up Imperial Banks, railways, roads, industrialisation
He gave promotion to the concept of state socialism which provided safety and security to labour class e.g employment security.

Entrapment Policy

Danish Adventure

Denmark had annexed Schleswig and Holstein which was a disputed territory. A combined attack of Prussia and Austria defeated Denmark. Bismarck got to know the strength and weakness of Austrian army during this expedition.

Defeat of Austria

Bismarck started alienating Austria by:

Adopting pro Russia attitude in Poland and signed an agreement with Russia where it had to maintain its neutrality in case of war.
He promised Italians to help in their unification.
Made commitment of big gifts to Napolean III of France.

He finally provoked Austria by annexing Holstein. Austrians were defeated in the Battle of Sadova (1866). This united all the northern territory and completed the first phase of German unification.

Defeat of France

Napolean III committed the mistake of making his demands in writing. Bismarck showed this letter to other European powers revealing France's nefarious designs and annoyed them.
The final provocation came in the form of Elms Telegram episode, where Bimarck changed the words of telegram to show France that Prussia had insulted its ambassador Beneditti. The incident provoked people of France and they declared war which was exactly what Bismarck wanted.
France was comprehensively defeated in the Battle of Sedan (1871) and this completed German unification.

It was a masterstroke by Bismarck. All the powers failed to understand his real intention and by the time they understood it was already too late.

What was the policy of Blood and Iron. Does it hold relevance today?

Policy

Otto von Bismarck gave his famous “Blut und Eisen” (“Blood and Iron”) speech before the Landtag, the Prussian legislature. In his speech, he claimed that the international policy of a modern state is built upon the willingness to fight - “Blut” (blood) and the willingness to spend vast amounts of public treasure in creating giant armies — “Eisen” (iron). "The great questions of the time will not be resolved by speeches and majority decisions ... but by iron and blood,".
He embarked on an ambitious programme of militarisation. He not only raised a large number of soldiers but also imparted them training in the use of new weapons. As a result, the military strength of Prussia considerably increased. He used his diplomatic skill to isolate his target to attack. He did not wait for international crises to render his task easier.

Relevance Today

A state policy of huge armies and an aggressive attitude toward neighbors threatens liberty and morality in different ways. A nation engaged in an arms race like Bismarck’s Prussia can not only plot wars but can also stumble into wars, as was the case in the First World War.
Arms races dramatically increase national government spending, so after 1871, the German Empire, France and Britain all increased military spending (reducing the amount of their wealth that taxpayers could keep). It is impossible to have a vast, sprawling military without also having a vast, sprawling government.
Reliance upon force rather than consent — upon military power rather than treaties, trade is no path to long term peace, prosperity, or moral government.
When we stray from that path of mutal peace, it amounts to embracing the Machiavellian policy which leads to neither peace nor prosperity.

UNIFICATION OF ITALY

Reasons?

Common bond of unity among Italian states.
Italy was the gateway of Europe and it was always the bone of contention between Austria and France. This led to the exploitation by different empires.
Napolean abolished smaller states and established republics implementing uniform political and administrative structure. This acted as a catalytic for Italian unification.
Italian cities were centres of Renaissance

Events?

Carbonary

Carbonary. Birth of secret organisation. The objective was to revolt and work for unification but in the absence of powerful and external support Carbonary was doomed to fail and Austria suppressed such revolts e.g suppression of revolts in 1820.
Failure of carbonary gave the message to intellectual class that mass awakening is the important priority of unification.

Mass Awakening

The most important role was played by Mazzini who is also called the profet of Italian unification. He established Young Italy Movement which was a secret organisation. The motive was to awaken people. Austria was the biggest hurdle in unification.

Cavour

Played a very crucial role in unification. It gained strength from Vienna Congress and was never under the domination of Austria. The ruler Victor Immanuel was a liberal who introduced constitutional reforms in Sardinia. So it was an ideal stage to take up the cause.

Cavour was appointed the Chancellor of Sardinia. He was brave, forsighted and possessed intellectual personality.

He took steps for economic and military empowerment of Sardinia.
He was clear that foreign assistance was required for unification. To seek help from England and France he sent his army to Crimea to fight in the Crimean War against Russia although he had no grudge against Russia. Italian army played a very important role.
In the Paris Peace Conference (1856) Cavour was invited as a representative of Italy. This was a diplomatic victory as Italy got acceptance as separate identity. But Italy got only assurance but there was no practical help.
He turned towards France and promised Napolean III big gifts in return for his help. By the Treaty of Plombiers. Napolean accepted to give assistance. Sardinia fought a war against Austria and was successful.
Austria traced the support to France and convinced Napolean III to stay away. Napolean III was a fickleminded person and so he pulled back his support. This was a blow to Cavour but the first phase of unification was completed.

Impact of Revolutions of 1830 and 1848

Awakened people started demanding responsible government and constitution.
Formation of revolutionary councils in 1860 in which activeness of people compelled most of the states to join Italian union.

Garibaldi

Naples, Sicily and Papal states had still not joined the union. Garibaldi with his Force of Thousands entered Naples and he was successful in getting complete mass support and forced the ruler of Naples to surrender. The story was repeated in Sicily and Papal states. Italy became a unified country and lived happily ever after !

EASTERN EUROPE

Background

In 1453 Turks occupied Constantinople. One of the major areas of contention was Balkan countries. It had been under the rule of Ottoman Turks. They started entering into Europe and occupied Eastern Europe. Turkish rulers never gave equal status to the people of Eastern Europe.
The suppression and exploitation of Eastern European countries by Turks created the inspiration of independence among Eastern European Countries
In 19th century Ottoman empire had begun to collapse. This led to revolts by various nationalities for independence. This came to be known as Eastern Question. There was a struggle between Turkey and Eastern European Nation.

Crimean War

In 1856 Russia was defeated in Crimean War. Britain and France supported Turkey to check Russian advancement.

Russia Turkey War

In 1877 Bulgaria attacked Turkey which was immediately joined by Russia leading to war between Russia and Turkey in 1877. Turkey was defeated and compelled for the Treaty of San Stefano. Under this

Bulgaria became autonomous power under the protection of Russia
Turkey accepted independence of Serbia, Greece, Montenegro etc.
Black Sea was accepted as Russian Zone.

The other major powers became increasingly wary of Russian advancement and its influence in Eastern Europe. Germany called for Berline Congress to settle the question.

Berlin Congress (1878)

It was a meeting of leading statesmen of Great Powers of Europe and the Ottoman Empire.
It was held after the Russo-Turkish War of 1877-78. Russia had emerged victorious in the war and to curtail Russia's gain Bismarck organised the conference.
The aim was to reorganise the countries of Balkans. Ottoman Empire was called as the "sick man of Europe".
Bulgaria was established as independent principality within Ottoman Empire. Romania achieved full independence.
Austria-Hungary took over Bosnia and Herzegovina and Cyprus was given to Britain.
Black sea was declared a neutral zone.
Russia was humiliated at Berlin.

INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION

Factors Responsible for IR?

There was a collapse of feudal system. Along with renaisssance this infused new life into economy and society.
The period saw tremendous growth in science and technology.
Growth of population led to increasing demand. Existing techniques were not sufficient to meet the demands and hence there was a need to find efficient modes of production. The dictum Necessity is the Mother of Invention could never have been more true than during IR.
Due to brave efforts by sailors new colonies and world trade routes were discovered. Queen Elizabeth I started the official policy of settlement in North America which finally gave birth to 13 colonies.

Why England dominated and not other countries?

England enjoyed a stable political system.
It had a strong navy and shipbuilding industry.
Large empire. A popular saying went that "Sun never sets in British Empire"
It had abundant natural resources which provided raw materials for its industries.
Colonies served as ready made market for its goods. Import duties on British goods were abolished while export duties on native goods were raised.
It was the birthplace of many scientific discoveries and technogies. It had a progressive attitude towards science. There were organisations like Royal Society of London focused on R & D.
Enclosure Movement led to eviction of small farmers which led to increased labour supply in cities.

What were the major Scientific discoveries?

Field	Inventor	Technology
Textile	Hargreaves	Developed machine which speeded up spinning
Textile	Arkwright	He adapted Hargreaves' machine for running with water
Textile	Crompton	He combined the advantages of machine made by both
Textile	Cartwright	He developed power loom
Textile	El Whitney	He developed Cotton Gin which separted seeds from cotton threads at 300 times faster speed.
Industry	James Watt	Developed Steam Engine in 1769
Industry		Development of blast furnace and textile industry (counter rising imports from India)
Transport	George Stephenson	Steam engine to haul coal from mines to port by railways.
Transport	Mc Adam	Pucca Road (Macadamized Roads)
Transport		First passenger and freight service from Liverpool to Manchester
Transport		Canal building in Europe and US
Transport	Robert Fulton	Use of steam boats.
Communication	Rawland Hill	Penny Post and Postage Stamp
Communication	Graham Bell	Telephone
Communication	Samuel Morse	Telegraph
Communication	Marconi	Wireless communication
Agriculture		Cash crops, steel plough and harrow, mechanical drill for seeding, intensive manuring and crop rotation.
Research		Royal Society of London

Role of Industrial revolution in other countries?

France: It had unstable political sytem and there was wide unrest among people. The situation therefore was not conducive for industrial advancement. By 1850 it was the second largest producer of iron, but it was far behind than England.
Germany : It was a latecomer as it had to wait till its unification in 1870. But after it it made rapid progress and became the main rival of Britain.
Japan : It was initially known only for silk, porcelain and toys. However, by the end of 19th century it became a global player in steel, machinery, metal goods and chemicals. It was the first country to industrialize in Asia
USA: It had abundant natural resources. It introduced machines and started factories even before 1800. It had well developed textile, steel and shoe industries.

Discuss the Impact of industrialisation?

Society

Feudal society transformed into Industrial Society
It also led to gross inequality. The British PM Disraeli spoke of 'existence of two nations in England - rich and the poor'
Means of production were controlled by factory owners. Landless, toolless workers were now dependent on employer. He could be hired or fired at will and enjoyed no rights, job security or social benefits. Their plight is well illustrated by Charles Dickens in his novels. Their working conditions were deplorable and they lived in filthy conditions.
Emergence of new order which clashed with the old order. It gave new dimension to economy, polity, society, religion.

International

Race for new colonies started. This led to the policy of colonialism and imperialism.
Brought countries and people together. World became interconnected and growth of international consciousness took place. The events in one part in the world affected another. For example, slowdown in England in 1830 led to the revolutions in other parts of Europe.

Economy

Emergence of Laissez Faire doctrine.
Centre of economy shifted from rural to urban areas, connection with land severed and the self sufficiency of village was broken.
Growth of trade, commerce, means of transportation, communication, banking.

Religion

Broke the monopoly of religion. It was relegated to private affair.
Some country like France totally prohibited any show of religion in public affairs.

What were the major features of capitalism?

Goods and means of production owned by individual. There existed only two classes - Capitalists (owner) and worker. Worker only owned his wages and nothing else.
Market knows everything approach. Laissez Faire. Adam Smith.
No government intervention.
Hire and Fire policy at will.
Exploitation of workers. Miserable conditions.

Major industrial reforms undertaken?

Formation of trade union was allowed.
Factory Act was passed in 1802.
Restriction on number of hours for kids to 12. Later kids below 9 years of age could not be employed.
Chartist Movement was launched for the demand of right to vote for industrial workers. Earlier they were denied.
Socialist consciousness development. Reordering of social system.
State's role in regulating the economy also came to be realised.

RISE OF SOCIALISM

The greatest challenge to laissez faire or free market doctrine came from socialism which grew in the beginning as a reaction against evils of capitalism. The idea appealed to workers. A complete re-ordering of society was felt necessary. While recognising the importance of machines and making them even better it also aimed at solving the problems created by capitalism by building new social order.

Reasons for Growth

Vast majority of workers had no right. Their conditions of work were miserable and were fired and hired on according to the needs of the capitalists. They had no job security. There were laws against workers combining themselves.
Belief that capitalism is evil and the means of production should be owned by the society as a whole and not by a few individuals. This led to revulsion against inequality.
French revolution and its promise of equality had given new impetus to ideas. However, there was wide gap between aims of FR and the actual conditions after the revolution.

Trade Unions

Workers began to organise themselves into trade unions to protect the common rights.
Several countries passed laws to protect them from unsafe conditions and limit the number of working hours.
Movement to break the machines by Luddites led by Ned Ludd. They believed that destruction of machines would an end to their misery.
There was a Chartist Movement in Britain for political rights.

Babeuf's Conspiracy

Babeuf was born in 1760 and participated in French Revolution. He organised a secret body called Society of the Equals. He was executed in 1797 but his ideas influenced the growth of socialist movement.

"Nature gave everyone an equal right to the enjoyment of all good. In a true society there is no room for either rich or poor. Time has come for republic of equals whose doors will be open for all"

Other Socialists and Organisations

Saint-Simon (1760-1825) : He gave the slogan of "from each according to his ability, to each according to his needs"
Charles Fourier (1772-1837): He is credited with Utopian Socialism and ideas of Feminism.
Robert Owen (1771-1858)
Lous August Blanqui (1805-81) : He believed that through a revolutionary conspiracy, power could be captured to bring about socialism.
League of Just - It had members in many parts of Europe. Its motto was - "All men are brothers". Internationalism was one of the most important features. In 1847 its name was changed to the Communist League and it declared its aim as "downfall of bourgeoisie, the rule of proletariat, overthrow of old society of middle class based on class distiction and establishment of a new society without classes and without private property". Its journals carried the slogan "Proletariats of all lands, unite!"

They viewed property in relation to the usefulness to society. They visualised a society free from any exloitation of any kind. The methods advocated by them were impracticable and ineffective and they came to be known as utopian socialists.

Marxian Socialism

Karl Marx (1818-83) and Fredrick Engels (1820-95) gave a new direction to socialist ideology. Their view of socialism is known as Scientific Socialism.
Marx published Communist Manifesto in 1848 whose impact on socialism is unrivaled. It stated that the aim of workers all over the world was the overthrow of capitalism and the establishment of socialism. Socialism was not merely desirable but also inevitable. Capitalism does not serve then needs of man and would be replaced by system better suited to human needs.
Marx analysed working of capitalism in his famous book Das Kapital and pointed out the characteristics that would lead to its destruction. According to it workers produce more value than they get in return in the form of wages, the difference being appropriated by capitalists in the form of profits. This constitutes the basic conflict in capitalist society. Interests of workers and capitalists are irreconcilable. Economic crisis were inevitable under capitalism. The situation could be resolved only if private ownership is ablished and profit motive is eliminated. Production should be carried on for social good and not for profit.
He envisioned a classless society where there would be no difference between what was good for the individual and for the society as a whole. Emancipation of working class would emancipate the whole human race from all traces of social injustice.

1848 Revolutions

Aimed at overthrow of autocratic governments, establishment of democracy. One of the major forces in these revolutions were the workers who had been inspired by the ideas of socialism. The Communist League participated in these revolutions but all these were suppressed.

International Outlook

One of the outstanding feature of socialist movement was its internationalist character.

Society of Fraternal Democrats in Britain in 1846. It had close links with other similar organisations in Europe and the Chartists in Britain. They emphasised the idea that cause of working class in all countries was the same.

The First International

International Working Men's Association or the First International in 1864. Marx drafted "An Address to the Working Classes".
The central aim was declared to be the total "abolition of all class rule". The emancipation of the working classes must be won by the working classes themselves.
The address ended with the slogan : "Proletarians of all lands, unite!"

The govt considered it as a menace and declared it illegal in many countries. During a short period of its existence it exercised tremendous influence on worker's movements in Europe and North America. Bonds of international solidarity got strenghtened.

One of the finest example of workers' solidarity was evident during Prussia and France War in 1870. The war was condemned both by the German and French workers as a crime committed. The French and German branches of International sent messages of good wishes and solidarity to each other. German workers protested against the annexation of Alsace-Lorraine from France. All the leaders of German workers were arrested.

Paris Commune (1871)

After the war in 1871 a new government agreeing to terms and conditions of Bismarck came to power and declared itself republic. It was dominated by propertied class. The workers regarded the surrender to Germany as treacherous and refused to surrender. France took the help of Germany to crush the movement.
Workers of Paris elected a council which on 28 March 1871 assumed the title of the Paris Commune. It was elected by Universal Adult Franchise and represented workers and lower middle class. All public offices were elected by universal suffrage with people having the right to recall.
The commune was finally exterminated and defenders of commune were slaughtered in thousands. Marx declared that "Working Men's Paris, will be ever celebrated as the glorious harbinger of a new society".
The extermination of the Commune was followed by systematic attempts to destroy the International in almost every country of Europe. It was split in 1872 and finally dissolved in 1876.

The Second International

During 1870s and the 1880s almost all the countries in Europe saw the formation of socialist parties. Some of them became quite strong and had an impressive representation in the parliament. Prominent among them were German Socialist Party, Socialist Democratic Federation in Britain, the Socialist League and Fabian Society in France. Socialist movement began to take root in Japan in 1890s.
Membership of Trade Unions increased and there were many strikes.
Congress was held in Paris on 14 July 1789 the centenary of the FR. It marked a new stage in the history of socialism.
1st May was declared every year as a day of working class solidarity. On 1st May 1890, millions of workers all over Europe and America struck work and held massive demonstrations.
Last decade of 19th century saw growing militarism and race for acquiring colonies. This was the main cause of confict. Capitalism was the root cause of the war. Campaign against militarism and war and in asserting the principle of the basic equality of all peoples and their right to freedom and national independence.
It was decided that socialist should utilise the "economic and political crisis created by the war, to rouse the masses and thereby hasten the downfall of capitalist rule"
International solidarity of workers became fundamental principle. They called for general strike to prevent their countries from waging war.
During 1904 session the Japanese and Russian delegations were made joint president when both these countries were at war with each other. The session was also attended by Dadabhai Naorji who highlighted the plight of India under British rule.

After the Second International the socialist and workers movement had become a major force in almost every country of Europe. Jean Jaures the great leader of French socialists was assassinated on the eve of WWI for campaigning against the war.

Weakness

It was a loose federation of socialist parties of many countries with diverging interests.
Some believed in necessity of a revolution while others favoured gradual reforms. Some even favoured colonialism !
Many supported war in the fear that they would be crushed by their govt if they protested. It was on the question of war and the future course of action that Second International suffered a fatal blow. During WWI most of the socialist parties extended their support to their respective governments.
After this Second International ceased to function and socialist movement in every country was split.

Achievements

It created widespread awareness of the problems created by capitalism and inadequacies of democracy.
Powerful political movement started in number of countries such as Russia, China, Cuba.
It had its impact on India as well. It helped Nationalist formulate a strong critique of the economic exploitation by British.
It played an increasingly important role in the coming years all over the world making socialism alongwith democracy and nationalism the dominating factor in the history of the world in the 20th century.

IMPERIALISM AND COLONIALISM

Imperialism means practice of extending the power, control or rule by a country over the political and economic life of areas outside its own borders. Occupation or direct rule is not always the feature. The essential feature is exploitation. Imperialist countries are also called Metropolis (mother country). Imperialism can be achieved through colonialism. It is a story of deception, brutality and armed might.

Colonialism means practice of acquiring colonies by conquest or other means and making them dependent. Today imperialist control has not come to an end and manifests itself in the form of economic exploitation and domination of independent but economically less developed countries and spheres of influence. This is called 'neo-colonialism'

History

1st Phase

The first phase began in 16th century with the finding of new sea routes and new land. This was the period of slave trade. 5000 slaves were sent to America every month during 17th century.
Africa was used for slaves and Asia mainly for trade.
Countries fought war to protect their trading interests. It was a period of naked plunder by European colonial powers. It led to growth of Industrial Revolution and capitalist system

2nd Phase

It started in 1875 and continues in many form today. This period is called New or Neo Imperialism. It was a result of rapid economic progress. The power of Spain and Portugal declined and new powers such as Germany, Japan, USA, Italy, Belgium emerged.

Conditions that helped Imperialism

Industrial Revolution & Capitalist Philosophy

Increased production of goods. Maximum profit was the prime motive. More and more production and minimum wages to workers was the modus operandi. Production was greater then Demand. Low wages led to low purchasing power which led to less demand. This made necessary the search for new markets.
Moreover, one industrialised country could not sell to another as they employed tariff barriers to protect their industry and economic interests. This was known as Protectionist policy.
For selling the goods at high price and acquiring raw materials at throw away prices political domination was necessary. It had the benefit of eliminating competition in the colonised country.
Industries required raw materials. India and Egypt provided Cotton. Congo and East Indies were used for Rubber. Change of pattern of cultivation took place. Focus was on plantation agriculture and cash crops. Opium cultivated in India was used for smuggling in China which inturn was used for payment for goods bought in China. Peasants were forced to cultivate only one or two crops.
Coal, iron, copper and oil were other major interests.
Asian and African colonies were attractive for investors. Rate of return in Europe was barely 3 - 4 % whereas it was 20% in Asia. Export of capital for investment >> Export of goods. Increase in financial might of banks and financial institutions. Control by giving credit and promote industries to serve their need and not to industrialise.
Political domination was needed to make their investment safe as a weak government may not be able to withstand uprising and protect their industries e.g Morocco became French Morocco after heavy investment from France

Transport and Communication

Steamships, construction of railroads and inland waterways by employing cheap labour. Telegraph (Morse), Telephone (Bell). Construction of Suez and Panama canal.

Extreme Nationalism

It was aided by the unification of Germany and Italy. It was associated with Chauvinism. Myth of superiority over other people. Need for colonies to add to prestige.
Imperialism became fashion of the age. Writers and speakers opened institutions to promote the idea of imperialism and took great pride in calling their territorial empires.
Acquiring of colonies for strategic point of view became widespread. England needed Port Said, Aden, Hong Kong, Singapore and Cyprus to set up naval bases.
Acquiring a colony led to chain reaction. If a country acquired one then it needed another to protect it and so on.
It added to imperialist manpower. People were inducted into army for use in wars and conquest. e.g Indian forces were used in WW. Manpower was also used for admin at lower levels.

Civilising Mission

Western countries considered imperialism as a noble purpose. The purpose was to bring civilisation to 'backward' people.
Rudyard Kipling gave the idea of 'the white man's burden'. Jules Ferry said 'Superior races have the duty of civising the inferior race'
Role played by Christian missionaries. They went into unknown areas driven by their zeal of spreading Christianity. They were followed by traders and soldiers.
Explorers and adventurers also helped in spreading imperialism. They discovered territories and brought back news about natural resources and opportunities for trade and development.

Conditions in Host Countries

Economicbackwardness.
Governments were weak and fragile.
Outdated modes of warfare. Maxim guns was used by Europeans.
Lack of education and succumbed to nefarious intentions of colonial powers e.g Granting of diwani rights to EIC by Mughals and considering them as Bees that give Honey by Aliwardi Khan of Bengal.
No concept of nation states and people could intrigue against their own kings. e.g Mir Jafar played the role of a traitor in Battle of Plassey.

Conquest of Asia

India

Well known. It was known as the 'brightest jewel of the British empire'.

China

Opium Wars

Before this war only two ports were open for foreign traders. British merchants bought tea, silk but there was no market for British goods. British merchants started smuggling opium into China on a large scale. Illegal trade was highly profitable and did immense physical and moral damage. In 1839 the Chinese government seized an opium cargo and destroyed it. Britain declared war and easily defeated Chinese.

Chinese were forced to pay heavy damages and open 5 port cities to British traders.
British subjects were to be tried in English courts rather than Chinese courts. This methodology came to be known as extraterritorial rights.
The Chinese government could not impose tariff on foreign goods.
Island of Hong Kong was handed over to Britain.

French Trouble

France followed Britain. On the pretext that French missionary had been murdered, England and France fought another war and defeated China. It was forced to grant more privileges.

Japanese Problem

Japan tried to increase her influence over Korea which was under Chinese lordship. China resented which led to another ill fated war in which China lost. Korea became independent and China had to cede Formosa and other islands to Japan and pay heavy war damages to Japan

Spheres of Influence

France, Russia, Britain and Germany gave loans to China to help her meet payment to Japan but at very high cost. They divided China into spheres of influence. Each country had certain regions reserved exclusively for its purpose. They acquired for themselves right to build railways and mining.

Germany: Kiaochow Bay, Shantung and Hwang Ho valley
Russia: Liaotung Peninsula, railroads in Manchuria
France: Kwangchow Bay
Britain: Wei-hi-Wei and Yantze Valley

USA which could not withstand being left out suggested an Open Door Policy or Me Too policy. Under this all countries would have equal rights to trade anywhere in China. Britain supported USA in the belief that this would discourage annexation of China by Japan and Russia.

Boxer Rebellion

This was an uprising against foreign powers. Foreign powers again emerged victorious and levied heavy damages on China as punishment. Imperialism continued with the cooperation of Chinese warlords.

Thus China although not conquered and occupied was reduced to a position of international colony. This is also known as Cutting of Chinese Melon.

South and South East Asia

Srilanka : Its control passed over from Potuguese to Dutch and finally to England. It was used mainly for Rubber and tea plantations.
Malaya and Singapore came under British. Control of all trade that passed through Strait of Malacca.
Indonesia and surrounding islands came under Dutch control.
Indo China (Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia) came under France.
Burmese gave the French the right to construct railway from Tonkin to Mandalay. British govt fearing French expansion started a war. Burmese king was captured and sent to India. Burma was annexed and became part of British empire in 1886.
Thailand remained independent but was under the British and French influence.
Philippines and Cuba revolted against Spain. US occupied Cuba and Philippines.

Central and Western Asia

England and Russia were rivals and were engaged in Great Game. Britain was concerned about defending its territory in India against expansion of Russia. Russia and Britain set up banks in Iran. Southern Iran came under British influence and North under Russian influence. After Russian Revolution the whole of Iran was occupied by British troops.
In a major development Oil was found in Iran. Standard Oil Company of US and Anglo Persian Oil Company of England was set up.
Britain and China agreed not to interfere in Tibet through an agreement in 1907. After overthrow of monarchy in 1911, Tibet passed under British influence.
Russia agreed to recognize Afghanistan as being outside her influence and Britain agreed not to annex Afghanistan.
German increased influence over Turkey and obtained a concession to build a railway from Constantinople to Baghdad and the Persian gulf. After WWI Syria, Palestine, Mesopotamia and Arabia were taken away from Turkey and passed under England and France.
Later oil became the focal point of all strategic maneouvres.

Japan as Imperialist Power

It started its programme of imperialism in last decade of 19th century. In 1853 American warships under Commodre Perry compelled the Japanese to open their country for American shipping and trade. Similar agreement were made with Britain and France. After Meiji Restoration Japan began to industrialise and within few decades became one of the most advanced countries of the world. Japan had very few natural resources at its disposal and thus looked for greener pastures.

Timeline

1894 - War with China.
1902 - Signed treaty with Britain to gain equal standings with European powers and equal rights in China. Southern part of Sakhalin and Liaotung went to Japan.
1910 - Korea became a colony of Japan

Imperialism was not limited to any one people or region. It was the result of greed for economic and political power regardless of race or cultural claims.

Conquest of Africa

Till last decade of 19th century European influence extended to only 20% of Africa and that too in coastal areas only. Major interest was only in slave trade.

Slave Trade

In 1562 Sir John Hawkins brough slaves in a ship called Jesus. Elizabeth received share in profit. The share of King of Spain in slave trade was fixed at 25%.
Slave market in Lisbon was set up by Portuguese. Arab also dominated slave trade. African villages were raided, people captured and handed over to Europeans.
African chiefs also took part and sold slaves for firearms from Europeans.
Slaves were transported as inanimate objects in unhygienic conditions. Lakhs of them died during long journey. Extreme brutalities were inflicted. The person who killed a run-away slave was given a reward by govt.
Slave trade ceased to exist by the end of 19th century.

Berlin Congress

Berling Congress (1884) was held to decide how to share out Africa among imperialist countries.
No African state was represented.
Fraudulent and bogus treaties were signed with African countries. As a result almost 30% of African borders are straight lines and drawn arbitrarily.The terms of treaties were misrepresented. Support of European country during war was interpreted as becoming a protectorate.

The partition of Africa was complete by the end of 19th century. But it was just a Paper Partition. The actual control was accomplished through use of military power.

West Africa

Primary Interest was Cocoa, Rubber etc.

Belgium

H.M.Stanley with assistance from King Leopold II of Belgium founded International Congo Association. It made 400 treaties with African chiefs. They transferred their lands in exchange for cloth or other articles of no great value. 2.3 m sq km of land came to be known as 'Congo Free State' with Leopold as King.
Stanley called occupation of Zaire as 'unique humanitarian and political enterprise'. Rubber and ivory were collected brutally. The treatment was so bad that even other colonial powers were shocked. Hands of defiant villagers were chopped off and brought as souvenirs. In 1908 it became Belgian Congo. Later uranium, timber and copper became more important.

USA and Britain

Later USA and Britain also joined. Copper resources of Katanga province was exploited.
Britain acquired Nigeria, a land of rich natural resource. Britain also acquired Gambia, Gold Coast and Sierra Leone.

French

Frenchman de Brazza was active north of Congo river. This area came to be known as French Congo with Brazaville as its capital.
France acquired Senegal, Benin, Ivory Coast and French Guinea. In a period of only 20 years the population of French Congo was reduced to 1/3 rd of its size.

Deutschland

Came to scene after 1880. Acquired Togoland and Cameroon, South West Africa (Namibia). More than half of the population was exterminated. It also wanted Angola and Mozambique.
After WW1 German territories were given to victorious powers.

Viva La Raza

It could capture only two colonies i.e Spanish Sahara and Spanish Guinea.

With the exception of Liberia whole of West Africa was divided. Liberia was settled by slaves who had been freed in America. It came under the influence of USA

South Africa

Initially Dutch had established her colony but it was later taken over by the British. The Dutch settlers were known as Boers who went north and had set up Orange Free State and Transvaal.
English adventurer Cecil Rhodes made fortunes in mining gave his name to African colony Rhodesia. Northern Rhodesia is known as Zambia and Southern as Zimbabwe. Rhodes became famous for Rhodes Scholarship. According to Rhodes - "Pure Philanthropy is very well in its way, but philanthropy plus 5 per cent is a good deal better"
British plotted to overthrow Boer govt of Transvaal which was rich in Gold. This led to Boer War (1899-1902) where Boers were defeated but were allowed to remain there.

East Africa

Except Portuguese Mozambique, it had not been occupied before 1884.
German adventurer Karl Peters came to the coastal region. He bribed and placed the region under German control. Later through an agreement France got Madagascar and East Africa was divided between Germany and England. Tanganyika came under German influence.
Uganda was reserved for England. British East Africa came to be known as Kenya.
After WWI Germany lost its territories.
Italy occupied Somaliland and Eritrea. Abyssinia (Ethiopia) was an independent state. Italy invaded her but was humiliated as Ethiopia defeated her in 1896 war. Abyssinia received arms from France. This is known as Battle of Adowa.

North Africa

France conquererd Algeria in 1830. It was very profitable as it provided huge market for French goods. French acquired Tunisia and Morocco, a strategically placed country.
Britain got Cyprus at Berlin Congress (1878).
Germans had been ignored so in order to avoid conflict it was necessary to accomodate her. France agreed to give Germany 250,000 sq km of French Congo.
Italy had assured herself of support in her claims over Tripoli and Cyrenica which were possessions of Turkish empire. Italy declared war against Turkey and occupied two provinces which were given the old Roman name of Libya.
France got free hand in Western Sudan and the Sahara.
Sudan was exploited by Britain and Egypt. A Sudanese leader, Mahdi defeated British and Egypt in 1880s. They later recaptured in 1889.

Egypt

Egypt was ruled by Pasha. From the time of Napolean French were interested in Egypt. French company got the right to dig Suez canal. The canal was completed in 1869 which aroused British interest. Disraeli the British PM bought large number of shares from Paha to make sure of keeping route to India safe. The canal was described as 'highway to our Indian empire'
A joint Anglo French army increased control over Egypt. In 1914, Britain announced that Egypt was not under Turkish control but was a British protectorate. In 1922, Britain was forced to recognise Egypt as independent nation.

Americas and Pacific

By 1820s almost all countries of the Americas gained indpendence from Spain and Portugal. Cuba and Puerto Rico were still under the control of Spain.
US emerged as the biggest power and had immense naval strength. US-Spanish war led to passing of control of Cuba and Philippines in the hands of US. It also gained control of Guam and Puerto Rico.
US claimed the right to civilise backward countries and stated that it must not fall out of the line of march.
Through Monroe Doctrine (1823) US warned European countries not to extend their influence in the Western Hemisphere. It claimed sovereignty on the continent.
In 1904 Theodre Roosevelt claimed that only US had the right to intervene and resolve dispute involving neighbouring countries. e.g Britain and Germany had imposed a naval blockade of Venezuela over failure to repay loan. US force them to lift the blockade.
US gained control over Dominican Republic, Nicaragua, Haiti, Hawaii (strategic location, sugar plantation). It also secured exclusive use of Pearl Harbour as a naval station.
US intervened in Mexico by deposing Fransisco Madero, a popular leader.
US made a major acquisition in the form of Panama Canal. It was of great economic interest. US took control of Panama Canal from France and gained perpetual right to a six mile canal zone. This was resented by Colombia. In 1904 US landed its troops in Panam aand recognised Panama as an independent state. The canal was opened in 1914 and has since been been under US control.
The policy of US is known as Big Stick and one of International Policeman. Extension of economic influence is known as Dollar Diplomacy. This was facilitated by absence of strong govt in countries of South America. These countries were ruled by Caudillos or crude and corrupt military leaders with armed gangs. They gave concessions to foreigners to exploit natural resources.

Effects of Imperialism

By 1914 almost all parts of non industrialized world had come under the direct or indirect control of few industrialised country. All parts were brought under World Economic Order.
Countries lost their political freedom and served their interests. Naked plunder of natural resources took place. This resulted into economic backwardness and destruction of local industries.
Patterns of agriculture was changed. Cuba was reduced to position of sugar producing country.
Even after independence most of these countries found it difficult to modernise themselves.
It bred racial arrogance and discrimination. e.g Apartheid in Africa. Intermixing of Blacks and White was made a criminal offence. Denial of rights to black in USA. Japan was given the status of 'honorary whites' by South Africa.

WORLD WAR - I

Discuss the political situation during this time.

USA, Britain and France had democracy.
Germany had an elected lower house (Reichstag) but real power was in the hands of Chancellor.
Italy was a monarchy with elected parliament but the franchise was restricted to wealthy people.
Japan also had elected lower house but the real power was in the hands of the emperor.
The government in Russia and Austria - Hungary were very different from the democracy of the west. The Tsar (Russia) and Emperor (Austria) were autocratic rulers.

Reasons for the breakout of the war?

Imperialist Rivalries

The scramble for colonies led to emergence of conflict between imperialist powers. They tried their best not to escalate the tension into war through mutal understanding and agreements. War was avoided as there was still a possibility of further conquest.
By the last decade of 19th century almost all areas were under imperialist control and further conquest could only happen by dispossessing some other country.
Rivalries resulted in attempts to redivide the world creating conditions of war.

German Progress

Germany made massive progress after its unification in 1870. It became leading producer of iron, steel and coal and left behind France and Britain.
Pharmaceutical sector was highly developed and it enjoyed monopoly in the production of artificial dye.
Imperial Railway Bureau was set up. It joined Baltic Sea and North Sea by Kiel Canal.
It entered shipping trade in a big way. Imperator a German ship built in 1912 was the largest ship in the world.
Since Germany was a late comer it could not grab as much colony as it desired. It dreamed of expanding its power. It planned to construct railway from Berlin to Baghdad. Britain and France were alarmed at these developments as the construction of railway would endanger their imperialist ambitions in Ottoman empire.
In 1888 Germany got a new ruler Kaiser William II who shifted his policy towards Aggressive imperialism. He came up with the concept of Welt Politik. He interfered in Morocco War and gave moral support to Boer War in South Africa.

Clash of interests

Italy almost became equal of France in power after its unification. It had its target set in Ottoman empire
Russia wanted to grab Iran and was suspicious of Austrian ambitions in Balkans.
Japan extended its influence in the far east. It also defeated Russia in 1905 war.
Britain was desperate to defend its large territory. There was an intense naval rivalry between Germany and Britain. Britain had developed Dreadnought battleship.
Austria had its ambitions in the Ottoman Empire.
French resented at the loss of Alsace Lorraine to Germany at the end of Franco Prussian War (1870).
Primary concern of USA was to safeguard its trade and trade routes.
Germans accused Britain, Russia and France of trying to 'encircle' it.

Serbian Nationalism

Serbian nationalism was a major factor. Serbia had the ambition of uniting all Slavs many of whom lived in Habsburg Empire (Austria - Hungary). The empire consisted of people from different nationalities (Slovaks, Czechs, Italian, Poles etc) and if Serbs left the fold many others would also demand their independence.
Austria wanted to destroy Serbia before it became strong enough to destroy it.

Alliance Formation

Formation of opposing groups, spending of vast sums of money to increase size of army and navy and develop deadly weapons. Europe became a vast armed camp. Propaganda for war and projecting own country as superior to other started.

Triple Alliance (1882) - Gemany, Austria-Hungary and Italy. Italy's loyalty was uncertain as it had fight with Austria.
Triple Entente or Understanding (1907) - France, Britain and Russia. Loose group based on mutual understanding.
In 1894 France and Russia signed an alliance. In 1904 Britain and France sign 'Entente Cordiale' . In 1907 Britain and Russia signed agreement.

These entered into secret treaties with each other. But WikiLeaks exposed all such treaties causing fear and suspicion.

Discuss important events preceding the War

Morocco Crisis (1904)

Morocco was one of the few African countries not controlled by any European power. Britain and France entered into secret agreement where Britain got Egypt and France retained Morocco.
Germany felt ignored and stepped in. Germany gave full support to Sultan of Morocco for its independence. The situation was ripe for war but it was averted when in 1911 France gave Germany a part of French Congo.

British - Russia Agreement (1907)

Russia was keen to attract foreign investment for its modernisation programme. It was not a military alliance.
Britain considered it safe as Russia had been humiliated in 1905 war by Japan and it was not in a position to pose any threat.
Germans viewed the entire incident differently. It accused the Entente powers of encircling it.

Bosnia and Herzegovina Problem (1908)

Austria took advantage of a revolution in Turkey and annexed Bosnia-Herzegovina.
Serbia also had an aim on these provinces and its claim was backed by Russia. It appealed for help but when it became clear that Germany would support Austria both France and Britain backtracked. Russia although wanted to support Serbia but did not want to risk another war without allies. It caused further enmity between Russia and Germany.
This led to Serbia becoming bitterly hostile to Austria. Russians were determined to avoid any further humiliation and embarked on massive military build up. They intended to help Serbia should it ever appealed again.

Balkan Wars (1912)

Serbia, Bulgaria, Montenegro and Greece started a war against the Turks. Turkey lost almost all its possessions in Europe.
After this Balkan countries fought another war over the question of distributing the former Turkish territory amongst themselves.
Austria succeeded in making Albania an independent country which was claimed by Serbia.

What led to immediate outbreak of the War

On 28 June 1914, Archduke Francis Ferdinand, the heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary was assasinated by a Serbian terrorist Gavrilo Princip at Sarajevo, the capital of Bosnia (He had decided to spend his honeymoon in this troubled region !).
Austria saw the hands of Serbia behind this and served Serbia an ultimatum. Serbia refused to accept one of the demands of ultimatum.
On 28 July 1914 Austria declared war on Serbia.
On 1 August Germany declared war on Russia and on 3rd August on France. On 4 August Britain declared war on Germany.
Japan declared war on Germany with a view to capture its colonies in the Far East. Turkey and Bulgaria joined on the side of Germany.
Italy initially remained neutral and later joined the war against Germany in 1915.

Discuss the Course of War

German hope of securing a lightning victory in France was thwarted and war entered a phase of stalemate. It had to wage battle on two fronts. On West it was fighting in France and in the east it engaged in fierce battle with Russia. Russia made an epic mistake of attacking both Austria and Germany at the same time and it suffered huge losses and was a huge blow to its prestige. Russia never recovered from the losses. German self esteem was boosted.
War quickly spread to West Asia, Africa and Far East.
A new type of warfare where trenches were dug started. Earlier method of fighting in the open disappeared. Machine Gun, Liquid fire, aircrafts, U-boats, poison gas.
Use of troops recruited from their colonies started.
Japan acquired German possessions in Far East and Britain and France took control of German territories in Africa.
Protest against Ottoman Empire in Palestine, Mesopotamia, Arabia and against Germany and Turkey in Iran.
In April 1917 US declared war against Germany. German U-Boats had sunk a British ship Lusiania. Among 1153 passengers killed 128 were Americans. European countries had raised large amounts of loans in US and these loans could be secured and paid back only when these countries won. There was a fear that Germany would emerge a rival to US.
Withdrawal of Russia after the Russian revolutions. Russia signed a peace treaty with Germany.

How did the war end?

Few socialist parties proposed the convening of an international socialist conference to draft proposals for ending the war without annexations and recognise the right of the people to self determination. The proposals were rejected. Pope also made proposals for peace but these were rejected. There was unrest among people and anti war agitation took place following the success of the Russian revolution.

Britain, France and USA launched an offensive in 1918. Bulgaria withdrew from the war and Turkey surrendered. The emperor of AH surrendered. Revolution broke out in Germany and the emperor Kaiser William II fled to Holland. The new German govt signed an armistice on 11 Nov 1918 and the war was over.

Reasons for loss of Germany?

Germany had to face war on two fronts.
Allied sea power was decisive.
German submarine campaign failed in the face of convoys protected by British.
Entry of USA brought new resources.
Allied political leaders Lloyd George and Clemenceau were more competent.
Germany was badly let down by here allies and had to constantly help out the Austrians and Bulgarians.

Assess the outcome of War

Unprecedented loss of lives. Close to 53 - 70 million fought in the war and over 9 million people were killed.
War led to epidemics and famines and various other social problems. Economy of many nations collapsed.
It transformed the political map of the world. Ruling dynasties were destroyed. Romanov in Russia during the war, Hohenzollern in Germany and Habsburg in Austria-Hungary and the rule of Ottoman Empire came to an end.
It gave birth of many independent nations and national movement. Strengthening of freedom movement in Africa and Asia. Exploitation of colonies during war, false hope of ushering in democracy.
It marked an end of European supremacy. It was surpassed by US. Soviet Union was soon to become world power.
The role played by soldiers from Asia and Africa belied the claims that Europeans soldiers were superior.
It was supposed to be the "war to end all wars". But it never happened. But imposition of harsh treaties caused further conflict. Imperialism was not destroyed as a result of the war. The victorious powers enlarged their possessions. Fear of redivision of the world remained lurking.
The emergence of Soviet Union was considered a danger to existing social and economic system. The desire to destroy it influenced the post war policies. These created conditions for another war.

EVENTS POST WW 1

What was Woodrow Wilson Programme?

He proposed a Peace Programme. This is known as Woodrow Wilson 14 points. The points were:

Abolition of secret diplomacy.
Free navigation at sea for all nations in war and peace.
Removal of economic barriers between states.
All round reduction of armaments.
Impartial adjustment of colonial claims in the interests of the population concerned.
Evacuation of Russian territory.
Restoration of Belgium.
Liberation of France and restoration of Alsace Lorraine.
Readjustment of Italian frontiers along the lines of nationality.
Self government for the people of Austria and Hungary.
Romania, Serbia and Montenegro to be evacuated.
Self government for the non Turkish people of the Turkish empire
An independent Poland with secure access to sea.
A general association of nation to preserve peace.

Give an Account of Peace Treaties

France wanted a harsh peace treaty to ruin Germany. Britain wanted a less severe punishment sot that Germany could act as the major customer for the British goods. USA too was in a favour of a leniant peace.

Versailles Treaty

Victorious power met at Versailles. The number of countries represented was 27. The terms of treaty was decided by Britain (Lloyd George), France (Clemenceau) and USA (Woodrow Wilson). Germany and Russia were excluded. The treaty was not a negotiation but imposition of demands on defeated by the victors. It was one of the most controversial settlements ever signed and it was criticised even in the Allied countries. It was too hard for the Germans, who were bound to object violently.

The main treaty was signed with Germany on 28 June 1919. Germany was compelled to sign under the threat of invasion.

The War Guilt clause declared Germany and her allies guilty of aggression.
Alsace-Lorraine was returned to France.
Coal mines in German area called Saar were ceded to France for 15 years and area to be governed by League of Nations.
Germany ceded her pre war territories to Denmark, Belgium, Poland and Czechoslovakia.
Rhine valley was to be demilitarized.
Union between Germany and Austria was forbidden.
Germany was to be disarmed. The strength of the army was capped at 1,00,00.
She was required to have no air force and submarines.
Dispossessed of all her colonies. Togo and Cameroon were shared between Britain and France. South West Africa was given to Britain. Pacific and Western Hemisphere were given to Japan
Although China was present during the negotiations her areas under German were given to Japan and not restored to her.
Germany was required to pay for war damages. An enormous figure of $6600 million Pounds was levied.
A League of Nation was set up and its aims and organisations were set out in the League covenant.

Under separate treaties with Austria-Hungary, Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia and Poland became independent. Baltic states which were earlier under Russia became independent. Complete dismemberment of Ottoman Empire took place. Britain was given Palestine and Mesopotamia (Iraq). France got Syria. These were called 'mandates' as mandatory powers i.e. Britain and France were to look after the interests of the people of the mandates but in reality they were governend as colonies. Most of the Turkish territory was given to Greece and Italy and Turkey was reduced to a small state. Soon after, under Mustapha Kemal Turkey underwent a revolution and it became republic in 1922. It regained control over Asia Minor and city of Constantinople and the Allies were forced to abandon earlier treaty.

Discuss the achievements and failures of League of Nations?

League of Nations was a brainchild of Woodrow Wilson and formed part of his famous 14 point peace initiative.

Aims

Preservation of peace and security and peaceful settlements of international conflicts and bound members not to resort to war.
One of its important provision was with regard to sanction under which economic and military action would be taken against any country which committed aggression.
Contained provision to improve labour, economic and social conditions in their countries. International Labour Organisation was set up.

Shortcomings

Hope was short lived. It lacked enforceable rights.
Germany and Russia were not part of the league whereas India which was not even an independent country was made a member.
US which played the leading role did not join it.
It was never an effective organisation. In the 1930s when many countries resorted to aggression, the League was ignored or defied. It did not come forward in case Japanese attack on China in 1931 and Italy attack on Ethiopia in 1936.
It did not have military force of its won.
It recognised the division of spoils of the war and most of the colonies were transferred as mandates i.e not to be annexed thus undermining the very ideals with which it was formed.
Wilson had earlier said that the war was fought to make the world safe for democracy. The Allies had entered into many secret agreements for dividing the spoils of war. The Soviet Govt exposed these secret treaties.

Success

Solved the dispute of smaller countries like Finland, Poland, Albania and Czech.
Settlement of refugee.
Minority proposal with the objective of protecting culture, religion and language of minorities in the entire world.
A health organisation a subunit succeeded in handling diseases like Chickenpox, Malaria etc. This body turned into WHO in 1948.
ILO success.

Discuss the political situation in Europe post WWI

Growth of socialist and communist party took place in almost every country of Europe. However, soon the socialist movements were defeated and dictatorial government came to power. These govt destroyed democracy and had dangerous consequences for the whole world.
Germany became a republic.
Inspired by Russian Revolutions there were revolutions in Finland, Baltic States of Latvia, Estonia and Lithuania which were earlier part of Russian empire.
Britain witnessed decline after the war. The Labour party came to power in 1924. The year 1926 saw the biggest strike in British history. In 1929 more than 3 million workers were left unemployed. However, the Facist movement could not make much headway and Britain continued to be democratic.
In France many government came and fell. The country suffered from severe economic crisis and there was widespread corruption. There was considerable leftward trend. Radical Socialist and Communist Party was formed in 1936.
USSR launched New Economic Policy and Five Year Plans.

Discuss the steps taken and their success to improve the situation after the First WW

Steps Taken

League of Nations.
Washington Conference was held to improve relations between USA and Japan. USA grew suspicious of Japanese power in the far east and in China. It was agreed that Japanese navy would be restricted to 60% of American and British. Japan withdrew from Kiaochow and Shantung province of China. The western powers agreed not to build any more naval bases near Japan.
Under The Dawes Plan it was agreed that Germany should annually pay only what she could afford. France agreed to withdraw troops from Ruhr region.
Under Locarno Treaties Germany, France and Belgium promised to respect their joint frontiers. If one of them broke the agreement Britian and Italy would come to rescue. The treaty had a major flaw as no guarantee was made regarding Germany's eastern frontier with Czechoslovakia and Poland.
Kellogg - Briand Pact was signed by 65 countries. Countries agreed to renounce war as an instrument of national policy. It was a completely useless plan.
Under Young Plan Germany's reparations were reduced from 6600 million to 2000 million pounds.
A World Disarmament Conference was held to work out a formula for scaling down armaments. The French refused to disarm or allow Germany to have equality in armaments.

Analysis

These were mere symbolic gesture and held no weight.
The member states of these treaties flouted the norms as and when they liked.

Discuss the political and economic situation in US

US Emerged as the richest and the most powerful country. It underwent tremendous industrial progress and made heavy investments in Europe.

Economic Crisis

In October 1929, the entire economy began to collapse. The stock market crashed. Created panic and shares held by people became totally worthless. More than 9,000 American Banks closed down. Closing down of thousands of factories due to lack of demand. The depression spread to all the capitalist countries of Europe. The number of unemployed in US alone crossed 15 million. The industrial production fell by 35 per cent.

The crisis was a result of over production. Demand was less. Factory stopped producing. While on one hand people starved on the other wheat was burnt in order to prevent fall in prices.

Franklin Roosevelt came to power and under him a new programme of economic and social development started. His programme is also known as New Deal. Conditions of workers were improved.

Deficit Financing.
Promotion to public works like infra development e.g roadways, railways etc.
Welfarism was added to capitalism. Promotion to health, education

Keynesian theory was applied. Steps were taken to improve the conditions of workers. As a result US recovered from the crisis.

Discuss the foreign policy of US during this time

Woodrow Wilson played a key role in the peace conference.
American public grew tired of war. The Republican party believed in a policy of isolation.
US didn't join LoN.
It tried to increase its trade and profits by investing abroad.
Washington Conference.
US was more concerned in getting back the $12 billion loan it had given to Britain and France during the war. It agreed to take part in Young and Dawes Plan because Britain's ability to pay loan was dependent on the ability of Germans to pay reparations ! This led to a situation where America -> Germany -> France -> America. The whole set up was one of the causes of economic crisis.
Kellog Brian Pact.
USA kept itself away when Japan attacked China in 1931. It remained determined not to be drawn into a conflict.

Discuss the Nationalist Movement in Asia and Africa during this Phase?

Inspiration from Russian Revolution and decline of European powers and support by Soviet Union led to rise of nationalist movement in these states.

Iran: Soviet Union gave up its claim on Iran after the war. Power was seized by Reza Khan who in 1925 became the emperor. The British troops left Iran and modernisation of Iran began.
Afghanistan: In 1919 King was assassinated and his son Amanullah came to power and proclaimed complete independence. It was immediately recognised by Soviet Union. Britain waged a war but in the end recognised its independence
Egypt: Britain was forced in 1922 to grant independence.
Syria: Syria passed on to France. Protests against French rule took place. France resorted to bombing and shelling of Damascus.
Turkey: Mass upsurge in India in the form of Khilafat Movement. Mustafa Kamal came to power. Signed a treaty of friendship with Soviet government. Turkey was invaded by Greece but Kamal Pesha resisted and Allies were forced to repudiate the earlier treaty, allied troops were withdrawn from Turkey and independence was complete.Turkey was proclaimed a republic. The institution of Caliph was abolished. Education was out of the hands of religious leaders. Religion was separated from the state.It became a source of movement for freedom in Asia. Helped in promoting the idea of social reform and modernisation.
Indonesia: Uprising against Dutch Rule.
Korea: Movement for independence from Japan.
China: Revolution in 1911 led to the establishment of republic. However, power passed into the hands of warlords and corrupt governors. National movement agains warlords and overthrow of foreign rule. Its founder was Sun Yat-Sen. He set up a govt at Canton in South China. The party was called Kuomintang. RR had a great impact on China. USSR renounced its earlier claims on China and pledged full support. Communist Party of China was formed in 1921. In 1924 Kuomintang and CPC decided to work together and received training and aids from Soviet Union. With the death of SYS in 1925 the unity between them was broken. Japan attacked China in 1930 and CPC played leading role in combating the threat.
Africa: Pan African Movement. African National Congress formed in 1912. Ethiopia defeated Italy in 1935-36.

FASCISM IN ITALY

What is Fascism?

The word fascist means bundle of rods with protruding axe which used to symbolise the authority and power of ancient Roman consuls. Nowadays there is an increasing tendency among the left to label as 'fascist' anybody who holds right wing views. It involves:

Extreme Nationalism: Emphasis on rebirth of nation. Building up greatness and prestige of the state with the propaganda that one's own nation is superior to all others.
Totalitarian Government: Government control on all aspects of lives. Promote greatness of the state which was more important than the interests of the individual.
One Party State: There was no place for democracy. It was especially hostile to communism. Great emphasis is laid on the cult of the leader who would win mass support by giving thrilling speeches and skilful propaganda.
Economic Self Sufficiency (Autarchy): The government must direct the economic life of the nation.
Military Strength and Violence: It was an integral part of way of life. Mussolini had remarked, 'Peace is absurd: fascism does not believe in it'

What led to growth of Fascism in Italy?

Disillusionment of Italy's gains from peace settlement: During WW1 Italy had been prmoised protectorate over Albania and some Aegean island. However Albania later became independent. Italian thus felt cheated in view of their effort in war and loss of 700,000 soldiers.
Economic Crisis: The effects of war on economy and living standard was disastrous. The government was under heavy debt from USA. There was massive unemployment as heavy industry cut back its wartime production.
Failure of Parliamentary System: There were large number of parties in parliament. In the era of coalitition government no consensus was possible and within few years 5 different cabinet came and went. There was growing impatience with system and people desired decisive government.
Wave of strikes: Large scale looting, rioting and occupation of factories by workers took place. Italian Communist Party was formed in 1921 and capitalist feared that a left wing revolution was imminent in the country.

How Mussolini captured power?

Mussolini aimed to rescue Italy from weak and unstable government. In 1919 he formed the fascist party with a socialist and republican programme.
He projected himself as the defender of private enterprise and property, thus attracting much needed financial support from wealthy business interests. Black Shirted Squads of fascist attacked and burned socialist headquarters.
Mussolini also made conciliatory speeches about the Roman Catholic Church. He swung the support of Pope in his favour. He was seen as a good anti communist weapon.
Moreover, his opposition turned out to be weak. The anti fascist group failed to cooperate with each other. The communist refused to cooperate with socialist.
He led a March on Rome. Mussolini was able to pose as the saviour of the nation from communism. His 50,000 blackshirted supporters converged on the capital. The King decided not to take action against them and instead invited Mussolini to form the government.

Discuss the policies of Mussolini

Political

All parties except the fascists were suppressed.
The PM was responsible only to the king not to the parliament. He could rule by decree which meant new law did not need sanction of the parliament.
The franchise was reduced from 10 million to 3 million.
Elected town councils and mayors were abolished and towns were run by officials appointed from Rome.

Censorship

A strict censorship was enforced in which anti facist newspapers and magazines were banned or their editors replaced by fascist supporters.
Radio, films and theatres were controlled in the same way.

Education

Education was closely supervised. Teachers had to wear uniforms and new textbooks were written to glorify the fascist system.
Children and young people were forced to join the government youth organisation. The other main was total obedience to authority. The motto was - 'Believe, Obey, Fight'

Employment

Government tried to promote cooperation between employers and workers and end class warfare. Fascist controlled union had to sole right to negotiate with the workers.
Strikes and lockouts were not allowed. However they were assured of benefits such as free Sundays, annual holidays, social security, sports etc.

Religious

The Papacy had been hostile to Italy since 1870 when all territories belonging to Papal state had been incorporated into new Italy.
Mussolini was an atheist yet he saw the powerful role played by the Church. He recognised Vatican City as a sovereign state, paid the Pope a large sum of money and accepted Catholic faith as the official state religion and made religious instruction compulsory in all schools. In return Pope recognised the kingdom of Italy.

Assessment of Mussolini Policies?

Success

What really mattered to ordinary people was whether the regime's policies were effective or not.

Industry was encouraged with government subsidies. Iron, steel production by 1930 and hydro electricity by 1937 had been doubled.
Battle of Wheat encouraged farmers to concentrate on wheat production as part of self sufficiency. By 1935 wheat import had been cut by 75%.
A programme of land reclamation was launched to improve agricultural yield.
An impressive Public Works Programme was designed. Building of motorways, bridges, railway stations, schools were built. Trains ran on time. Even the Football team won World cup twice in 1934 and 1938!
The after work (Dopalovoro) organisation provided Italian people social benefits such as cheap holidays, tours, cruises etc.

Failure

His programmes were launched with much fanfare but several of them did not yield the expected results.

Basic shortage of raw material was still an issue. Italy could not match even Belgium in iron and steel production.
Increase in wheat production was at the expense of dairy and arable farming. Agriculture remained inefficient. Farm wages fell drastically.
North South divide persisted. North Italy was industrialised and prosperous while south was agricultural, backward and poor.
Lira was revalued too high in an attempt to show that Italy had strong currency. This backfired as export became expensive and lost its competitiveness.
Economic crisis on 1929 made the matters worse.
The government hardly resembled a welfare state. There was no official government health insurance till 1943.
The regime was highly corrupt and inefficent. Many of its policies were not carried out. Mussolini developed a distrust for everyone around and tried to do everything by himself. It was impossible for one man to do so much.

What led to Mussolini's downfall?

Entry into the WW II was a disastrous mistake. The public opinion was against it. Italy was simply not economically strong to wage the war. It had few thousand planes and no heavy tanks.
General public suffered hardships. Taxes were increased to pay for the war.
Italian suffered humiliating defeats in the war and all Italian troops had to surrender in 1943.
Mussolini seemed to have lost his touch and all he could do was to sack some minister. He refused to make peace and continued the war.
Finally Fascist Grand Council turned against Musslolini and king dismissed him.

NAZISM IN DEUTSCHLAND

What was the political situation in Germany after World War 1?

After the world war general elections were held in 1919. It was the first democratic elections ever to take place in Germany. A new constitution was by National Assembly which met at Weimar. The Social Democrat policy came to power. The Weimer constitution gave its name to Weimer republic which lasted till 1933. Meanwhile Adolf Hitler and his National Socialist (Nazis) had been carrying out great propaganda blaming the Government and the Jews for all ills of the country.

What were the failures of Weimar Republic?

Political Problems

It had accepted the humiliating and unpopular Versailles Treaty. It was always associated with defeat and dishonour. German nationalists could never forgive it for that.
Germans had a traditional lack of respect for democratic government and great admiration for army.
The parliamentary system was based on proportional representation which led to too many parties in the parliament. No party could ever win a majority. This led to policy paralysis and programmes were not implemented.
Communists and Nationalists did not believe in republic and refused to support the Social Democrats. There was always a threat of civil war.

Economic Problems

In 1919 Germany was close to bankruptcy due to heavy expense of war.
Reparations imposed by Versailles treaty exacted heavy toll on German economy.
In January 1923 French troops occupied Ruhr which was an important German industrial area. This led to collapse of the German currency Deutschmark. The situation was so worse that children made kites out of devalued currency. The rate of exchange went down to 1$ = 2.1 billion Deutschmark.
The economy was heavily dependent on American loans. During 1929 America itself faced crisis and as a result there German economy faced futher hardships.

What made Nazis popular?

Hitler and Nazis offered attractive alternative. The more unstable the economy the more seats Nazis won in the Reichstag.

They offered national unity, prosperity and full employment.
They promised to overthrow the Versailles settlement.
The Nazi private army called the SA was attractive to young people out of work. It gave them a small wage and a uniform.
Wealthy landowners and industrialists encouraged the Nazis because they feared communist revolution.
Hitler had extraordinary political abilities. He had tremendous will power and remarkable gift for public speaking. He was seen as a Messiah. His autobiography Mein Kampf became highly popular among masses.
There was a striking contrast between the Weimar government and Nazis. While the former was dull, unable to maintain law and order; the latter was strong, decisive and promised restoration of national pride.

What did National Socialism stood for?

The word socialism did not imply nationalisation and redistribution of wealth. It was included only to attract the workers. The general principles were:

It was a way of life dedicated to the rebirth of the nation. The aim was to make Germany a great nation and restore national pride. The entire state was organised on a military footing.
Great emphasis was laid on the ruthlessly efficient organisation of all aspects of the lives of the masses. The state was supreme, the interests of the individuals were always second to that of the state. It was a totalitarian state
Propaganda played an important role. Joseph Goebbels was the propaganda minister of Nazis. According to him "if you tell a lie big enough and keep repeating it, people assume it to be truth"
The race theory was vitally important. Hitler divided mankind into two groups Aryans and Non-Aryans. The Aryans were Germans and they were the master race, destined to rule the world. All the rest particularly Jews were inferior and were to become slave races of the Germans.

Discuss the policies of Hitler?

Political

The legal basis of his power was the Enabling Law which stated that government could introduce laws without the approval of the Reichstag and could ignore the constitution. This meant that Hitler was to become the complete dictator.
He followed a policy of forcible coordination. The govt tried to control as many aspects of life as possible using polic force and State Secret Police, Gestapo.
All parties except National Socialists were banned.
Civil services was purged of all Jews and other suspected 'enemies of the state'
Trade unions were abolished.
The education system was closely controlled. Nazi propaganda was taught in school. Human biology was dominated by Nazi race theory.
Hitler assumed the title of Fuhrer and favourite slogan was 'the Fuhrer is always right'.

Religion

The religion was brought under the state control. The worst aspect was his anti Jewish policy. Jews were sent to concentration camps like Auschwitz where they were made subject to chemical test, tortured and finally exterminated. Millions of jews lost their lives. Nuremberg Laws of 1935 deprived Jews of their citizenship. The camps came to be known as Holocaust and was probably the worst and most shocking crimes ever committed on humanity.

Economic

The economic life was closely organised. Food prices were controlled. vast schemes of public works were introduced.

Discuss the success of Hitler policies.

Coming of Hitler caused great enthusiasm among people.
He was successful in eliminating unemployment. The public works programme provided thousands of jobs.
Care was taken to keep the support of the workers. Joy Organisations provided benefits such as subsidized holidays, cheap theatre etc.
Wealthy capitalists and industrialised were delighted with Nazis as it promised communist free environment.
Nazis aimed to achieve self sufficiency in food production. Farms were declared hereditary and this received huge support from the farmers as they no longer faced the threat of eviction.
Hitler gained the support of Reichswehr (army) which was crucial. His military policies were highly popular with army.
Hitler built the largest network of highways called Autobahn and set up a company Volkswagen (People's Car) to produce low cost automobile for the masses. These two exists even today and are highly efficient and successful.

Comparision of Fascism vs Nazism?

Similarity

Both were anti communist and supported by wealthy capitalist and industrialists.
Both aimed for totalitarian state and controlled industry, agriculture and the way of life of the people.
Attempted to make the country self sufficient.
Emphasized the supremacy of the state. Glorified war, nationalism and cult of the leader. Rebirth of the nation was given prime importance.
Education was highly supervised. Indoctrination of young mind and blind obedience to state was taught.

Differences

Fascism never seemed to take deep roots in Italy as it did in Germany.
Italian system was not as efficient as Germany. Italians could not achieve the stated goals of self sufficiency and removal of unemployment.
Italian system was not as ruthless as that in Germany and there were no mass atrocities.
Italian fascism was not anti Jewish or racist.
Mussolini was more successful with his religious policies.
Monarchy still played a role in Italy and in 1943 King dismissed Mussolini. Unfortunately there was no one in Germany to dismiss Hitler.

BUILD UP TO THE WAR

Major factors leading up to the war

Failure of League of Nations.
Extreme nationalism.
Policy of appeasement by Britain and France.
Every country for itself.
Great Depression had made took weak to take any proactive steps.

Discuss Major violations of International norms during this time.

Italy, Germany and Japan started their aggression. They were united in Anti Comintern Pact. They declared their war against communism. Comintern advocated uniting all anti-fascist forces.

Japan

Japan invaded Manchuria in 1931. It was an important trading port and Japan had invested millions of dollars here. China a member of LoN appealed for help but Britain, France were completely indifferent to the appeal. Japan occupied Manchuria and installed a puppet govt. In 1933 Japan quit LoN and started acquiring British and American property in China.
Japan captured Shanghai, Nanking and committed terrible atrocities. USSR did not come to rescue as it did not want full scale war with China.

Italy

Italy invaded Ethiopia in 1935. LoN passed a resolution condemning the attack but no further action was taken. The motives were as follows: Italy's existing colonies were not profitable, to avenge the 1896 defeat and divert attention from internal economic crisis caused due to Great Depression.
Sent extensive help durint Spanish Civil War (1936)
Mussolini signed Pact of Steel (1939) in which he promised a full military support in case of war.

These actions made Mussolini unpopular in Italy and disillusionment with him began to spread.

Germany

Hitler aimed to annex Austria and territory from Czechoslovakia and Polan which had large German minorities. He hoped for Lebensraum (living space).

He withdrew form World Disarmament Conference and LoN on the issue that France didn't agree to Germany having equality of armaments.
He reintroduced conscription in 1935 and built an army of 8,00,000 men.
Signed Anglo German Naval Agreement where he was allowed to build submarines.
He sent troops into Rhineland (1936)
Helped Franco in Spanish Civil War. Bombing of defenceless town of Guernica.
He invaded Austria and made it a part of Third Reich.

Discuss the policy of Appeasement

Western government followed a policy of appeasement. It meant avoiding war with fascist powers and conceding to their not so unreasonable demands.

Reasons

Avoding war at any cost as to avoid any repeat of World War I like scenario.
Fear of communist Russia. Fascist were the perfect antidote to communist agenda. The danger from communism was greater than Hitler. They wanted to use Germany as a buffer state.
Great Depression made these countries economically and militarily weak to take any action. Britain and France were totally unprepared for any full scale war.
Strongly pacifist public opinion.
Feeling that Germany and Italy had genuine grievances. Versailles treaty was condemned to be too harsh on Germans.
Economic cooperation between Germany and Britain would be win win scenario for both countries.

Steps

Dawes, Young Plan and Locarno Treaties.
Not taking any action during Chinese, Italian and German invasion and in Spanish Civil War.
German attack on Austria was seen as a natural union between two German areas.
Height of appeasement reached at Munich Conference where Britain and France handed over Sudetenland to Germany.

Result

Germany was willing to take risk of attacking Poland. It convinced him of the complacency and weakness of Britain and France.

Fascism could not have survived as long as it did and would not have led to the WWII. Western countries were haunted by danger of communism and they hoped that fascist countries would rid them of this danger.

Discuss German attack on Czechoslovakia and Poland

Czech

Hitler invaded Czechoslovakia to fulfil his ambition of Lebensraum (living space). He claimed Sudetenland an area known for her industries and strategic importance. He hated democracy in Czech and for the fact that it had been set up by Versailles treaty.
Czech had a large German minority. Nazi started a propaganda that Germans were facing discrimination and they organised huge protest demonstration.
Munich Pact : Chamberlain (Britain), Daladier (France), Hitler and Mussolini met at Munich. Czechs and Russians were not invited to the conference. Sudetenland was handed over to the Germany. This was done to avert the war. Chamberlain said - "I believe it is a peace for our time".
In 1939 Germans occupied whole of Czechoslovakia. For the first time the invasion led to widespread criticism and it was felt that Germany was going too far.

Poland

The Versailles Treaty took away Danzing which was a German speaking area from Germany. In 1939 buoyed by his success in Czech Hitler demanded return of Danzing so that he could construct a railway line between East Prussia and rest of Germany. Poles feared another Munich Conference and refused to surrender.
Hitler signed a non-aggression pact with Russia and agreed to divided Poland between Germany and USSR.
Britain after much hesitation declared support to Poland. Hitler didn't take it seriously and launched a full scale attack on Poland.
This led to break out of 2nd WW.

Hitler wanted to remove the stigma of defeat in the First World War. The only antidote to defeat in one war is the victory in the next.

Give an account of Spanish Civil War ?

Reasons for crisis?

In 1936 a Popular Front comprising the Socialist, Communist and other democratic and anti-fascist parties came to power.
The new republic faced serious problems. Roman Catholic Church was hostile to the republic. Army had to too much influence in the politics.
Depression of 1930s took its toll. Exports declined and unemployment rose.
There was a right wing opposition to the left's solutions to these problems. On the other hand left-wing groups like anarchists and syndicates favoured strikes and overthrow of capitalist system.

Course of civil war

There was a struggle for power between nationalists and republicans. The nationalists received help from Germany and Italy. The republicans received help from Russia but France and Britain refused to intervene.
The nationalists captured Barcelona and the whole of Catalonia and the war ended with the capture of Madrid.
It evoked a sharp international response. JLN expressed solidarity with Spain and thousands of anti fascist joined Spanish agitation. Finest example of internationalism in history.

Reasons for Franco victory

Held together various right wing groups whereas republicans were less united and groups like anarchists and communists fought amongst themselves.
Substantial help from Germany and Italy tipped the scale in their favour. German bombed defenceless town of Guernica.

Franco in Power

His government was somewhat similar to those of Hitler and Mussolini. However, it was not a fascist as it supported the Church.
He kept Spain out of the 2nd World War and ruled Spain till 1975.
He took steps to modernise industry and the economy was helped by booming tourism industry.

WORLD WAR II (1939-45)

Discuss the course of events

Defeat of Poland

Invasion of Poland marked the beginning of the Second World War. Poles were defeated because of German Blitzkreig (lightning war). It consisted of rapid thrusts by motorised division and tanks and supported by Luftwaffe (German air force). Britain and France were of little help. French mobilisation was slow and out of date. Meanwhile Russia invaded eastern Poland. Finally Poland was divided up between Germany and USSR.

Phoney War

Russia took over Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania and invaded Finland. France and Germany manned their respective defences. Germany took a pause as Hilter hoped that this would compel France and Britain to negotiate peace. This period is known as 'phoney war'

Invasion of Denmark and Norway

Hitler occupied Denmark and Norway and thus ended the phoney war. In Denmark Germans were assisted by Quisling, leader of Norway's fascist party. The word Quisling means traitor who collaborates with enemy. Control of Norway was important as it was the outlet for Swedish iron ore which was vital for armaments industry. Fjords of Norway proved to be excellent naval base.

Attack on Holland, Belgium and France

There was simultaneous attack on all three and resulted in swift victories. Paris was captured and France surrendered. Germans occupied northern France and Atlantic coast. It gave them vital submarine bases.

Why was France defeated so easily?

They were psychologically not prepared for war and were divided between pro-facist and anti-fascist camp. The communist were also against the war.
France suffered from serious military weakness. Its forces were divided whereas it had to face full might of combined German force. There was poor communication between army and air force.

Battle of Britain

Germany failed to defeat Britain. Although it bombed harbours, radar stations, munitions factories in Britain.
Royal Air Force (RAF) played a heroic role in repelling the German air attacks and inflicted heavy losses on Luftwaffe.
Winston Churchill inspired people to resist the attacks. He paid tribute to British fighter pilots: "Never in the field of human conflict was so much owed by so many to so few".
The battle of Britain was the turning point of the World War II.

Invasion of Egypt

Not wanting to be outdone by Hitler, Mussolini sent an army to Libya while another army invaded Greece. However, British soon drove them out of Egypt. British navy sank half the Italian fleet.
Mussolini became embarassment to Hitler. Hitler finally came to rescue. Together with Italians they drove British out of Libya and finally captured Greece.
Due to incompetency of Italy the German attacked on Russia was delayed by few months and this was to have grave consequences for Hitler.

Invasion of Soviet Union (Operation Barbarossa)

Hitler violated the treaty and invaded Soviet Union. Thre reasons for attack were:

Fear that Russia might attack first while Germany was busy fighting in the West frontier.
Hitler hoped that Japan would attack Russia in the Far East and the more powerful Japan became, the less chance that there was of USA entering the war.
Hatred of communism and his desire for Lebensraum (living space). He always wanted to conquer Russia.

He repeated the mistakes of Napolean Bonaparte. He grossly underestimated the strength of Soviet forces. Germany did secure initial success but the tide turned in Soviet favour at the landmark Battle of Stalingrad where Red Army defeated Germans. Meanwhile Churchill and Roosevelt declared support to Soviet Union. The civilian population of Stalingrad joined the soldiers in the defence of the city. German army could not withstand the bitter cold and perished.

Entry of USA

Uncle Sam entered the war as a consequence of Japanese attack on Pearl Harbour. Until then America was still intent on isolation and had remained neutral though US had provided massive financial aid to Britain. Japanese were determined to conquer Asia and the pacific. With entry of US the war truly became global. The US declared war on Japan in December 1941.

Beginning of the End

Japan failed to capture Australia.
In North Africa, German and Italian forces were routed by early 1943.
Many sections in Italy turned against Mussolini and he was arrested and a new govt was formed. The new govt joined the war against Germany.

Second Front

American troops landed on coast of Normandy in France. This is known as opening of Second Front. Germans were surrounded from all sides now.

End of War

On 2 May 1945 Soviet armies entered Berlin. Hitler committed suicide on the morning of the same day. On 7th May 1945 Germany surrendered. Atom bomb dropped on Hiroshima (6 May) and Nagasaki (9 May) led to surrender by Japan.

Reasons for Defeat of Germany?

Shortage of Raw materials: Both Italy and Japan had to import supplies and Germany was short of rubber, cotton, nickel and oil. On the other hand Britain received supplies from USA
Allies learnt from their mistakes: By 1942 they understood the mechanism of Blitzkreig. They built up an air and naval superiority which won them battles in Atlantic and Pacific
Axis Powers simply took on too much: By attacking Britain Germany had spread its troops too far and too thin. It was fighting war on all fronts (East - Russia, both sides of mediterranean, western coastline of France)
Combined resources of Britain, USA and USSR: The Russian rapidly moved their industry east of Ural mountains and were able to continue production even when German attacked on western front. By 1945 they had 4 times as many tanks as Germans. With help from America, Germany and Japan could not match.
Serious Tactical mistakes: Japan relied too much on battleships and did not focus on aircraft. Hitler should have called back his army from Russian front but his obstinacy cost him the war.
Incompetent Allies: In Europe Germany alone had to deal with Russia, France and Britain. Italy under Mussolini proved to be a liablility than asset.

Discuss the outcome of the War

Enormous destruction
End of supremacy of Europe.
Emergence of Two power blocks.
Development and use of nuclear weapons
Process of decolonization
United Nations Organisation

World War II saw resistance movement in many countries. Discuss them.

In many countries the government capitulated but people fought heroically.

French army fought outside France under the leadership of General de Gaulle.
Popular Front was formed in many countries. In France it prevented a fascist takeover. It created worlwide awareness of the danger that fascism posed to all the countries. The leader was Georgi Demitrov, a Bulgarian Communist.
Guerilla forces were set up in Greece and in Yugoslavia under the leadership of Marshall Tito.
Heroic uprising of people in Warsaw is a glorious chapter in the history of resistance movement.
Resistance movement within fascist country as well. Anti-fascist forces in Italy were very powerful which brought the downfall of Mussolini.

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